Four types of right effort in Theravada Buddhism

Four types of right effort in Theravada Buddhism

By Dr. Ari Ubeysekara

Introduction

In the Buddhist teachings, Lord Gautama Buddha has consistently emphasised the significance of one’s effort (viriya) required to cultivate and successfully complete the path of liberation to attain Nibbana. The Buddha’s own determination and effort is well indicated by His resolution on the night of enlightenment when He sat down to meditate under the Bodhi tree (ficus religiosa) at the place presently known as Bodh Gaya in India;

“Though only my skin, sinews and bone may remain, and my blood and flesh may dry up and wither away, yet will I never move from this seat until I have attained full enlightenment.”

The Pali word “viriya” meaning a skilful attitude of engaging in wholesome activities has been translated into English language as effort, energy, vigour, exertion, diligence, persevering, persistence, etc. In the Higher Teachings of the Buddha (abhidhamma), effort has been described as one of the six occasional mental factors (cetasika). Effort is an ethically variable factor taking on the moral quality of the mind at any given time. The proximal cause for the arising of effort is a sense of spiritual urgency (samvega). This sense of spiritual urgency can arise when one reflects on birth, old age, disease, death, suffering in the lower planes of existence (apaya), suffering experienced in past lives, suffering to be experienced in future lives and suffering involved in searching for food in this life. (1)

Being an ethically variable mental factor, effort becomes a wholesome mental factor when it is associated with a wholesome consciousness based on the three wholesome roots of non-greed, non-hatred and non-delusion. It is an unwholesome mental factor if it is associated with an unwholesome consciousness based on the three unwholesome roots of greed (lobha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha), while it becomes a kammically indeterminate mental factor if it is associated with a kammically indeterminate consciousness. The factor of effort (viriya) that is considered here is effort for wholesome actions that are performed with a view to attain enlightenment, a state beyond all suffering.

Effort can be either mundane or supra-mundane. Effort to stop the arising of unwholesome mental volitions or to get rid of unwholesome volitions that have already arisen in a worldly sense in relation to the sensuous world (kama loka), fine material world (rupa loka) and formless world (arupa loka) is mundane effort. Effort that arises during the path (magga) and fruition (phala) of the four supra-mundane stages of Stream Entry (sotapanna), Once Returner (sakadagami), Non-Returner (anagami) and Arahant is supra-mundane effort.

The Buddha has included right effort as the sixth factor of the Noble Eight-fold Path which has to be cultivated by everyone who hopes to gain enlightenment and escape from all suffering and the cycle of birth and death.

The Noble Eight-fold Path (ariya atthangika magga)

1. Right view (samma ditthi)
2. Right intention (samma sankappa)
3. Right speech (samma vaca)
4. Right action (samma kammanta)
5. Right livelihood (samma ajiva)
6. Right effort (samma vayama)
7. Right mindfulness (samma sati)
8. Right concentration (samma samadhi) (2)

Right effort provides necessary energy to develop the other seven factors, particularly, the factor of right concentration which is necessary to develop right wisdom. Effort becomes right effort within the Noble Eightfold Path only when it is influenced and guided by right view and right intention and work in harmony with other factors.

The Buddha showed (and taught the way) to the world that as human beings we have the potential to liberate ourselves from suffering in this life itself. In the Parinibbana sutta of the Digha Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s long discourses), the Buddha advised the chief attendant Venerable Ananda as follows;

 “Ananda, be islands unto yourselves, refuges unto yourselves, seeking no external refuge; with the Dhamma as your island, the Dhamma as your refuge, seeking no other refuge.” (3)

It needs strong, persistent and unshakable effort for one to cultivate and complete the path of liberation by oneself. In the Kitagiri sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s middle length discourses), the Buddha has indicated the degree of effort and determination that one requires in order to attain that goal;

“Gladly would I let the flesh and blood in my body dry up, leaving just the skin, tendons, and bones, but if I have not attained what can be reached through human firmness, human persistence, human striving, there will be no relaxing my persistence.” (4)

In the Satipatthana sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya, the Buddha has described contemplation of the seven factors of enlightenment including effort as a means of developing mindfulness of mind objects (dhammanupassana). In contemplating the factor of effort as just a mental object, the meditator is aware;

1. When the effort factor has arisen
2. When the effort factor has not arisen
3. When the effort factor arises, and
4. When the arisen effort factor reaches its completion (5)

All aspirants to enlightenment in the past, present and the future to become a Samma Sambuddha, Pacceka Buddha or an Arahant would do so by practising the four aspects of mindfulness described in this discourse: Contemplating the body in the body (kayanupassana), contemplating feelings in the feelings (vedananupassana), contemplating mind in the mind (cittanupassana) and contemplating mind objects in mind objects (dhammanupassana). According to the Buddha, each technique of developing mindfulness on the body, mind, feelings and mind objects with a view to gain insight should be accompanied by three factors:

“atapi, sampajano,satima”

“Ardency, clear comprehension, mindfulness”

Here, ardent or resolute means having a sustained and balanced effort (viriya) that is associated with enough vigour and enthusiasm to eradicate the mental defilements, such as mental hindrances and continue with one’s practice till one arrives at the final destination of one’s spiritual journey.

In the Mahasakuludayin sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya, the Buddha has described the four types of right effort as follows:

1. A monk awakens zeal for the non-arising of un-arisen evil unwholesome states, and he makes effort, arouses energy, exerts his mind, and strives.
2. A monk awakens zeal for the abandoning of arisen evil unwholesome states and he makes effort, arouses energy, exerts his mind, and strives.
3. A monk awakens zeal for the arising of un-arisen wholesome states and he makes effort, arouses energy, exerts his mind, and strives.
4. A monk awakens zeal for the continuance, non-disappearance, strengthening, increase, and fulfilment by development of arisen wholesome states, and he makes effort, arouses energy, exerts his mind, and strives. (6)

So, the four types of right effort that a disciple on the path of liberation should aim to apply are:

1. Effort to prevent the development of unwholesome mental states that have not arisen (anuppannanaṃ akusalanaṃ dhammanaṃ anuppadaya vayamo)
2. Effort to abandon the unwholesome mental states that have arisen (uppannanaṃ akusalanaṃ dhammanaṃ pahanaya vayamo)
3. Effort to cultivate the un-arisen wholesome mental states (anuppannanaṃ kusalanaṃ dhammanaṃ uppadaya vayamo)
4. Effort to maintain the wholesome mental states that have arisen (uppannanaṃ kusalanaṃ dhammanaṃ bhiyyobhavaya vayamo)

Unwholesome mental states are the mental defilements that can arise from the three unwholesome roots of greed (lobha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha) while wholesome mental states originate from the wholesome roots of non-greed (alobha), non-hatred (adosa) and non-delusion (amoha). Unwholesome mental states can lead one to be born in the lower realms of extreme suffering (apaya) and to continue in the repeated cycle of birth and death (samsara) with all the associated suffering.

Well maintained morality or virtue (sila) is an essential factor for the proper development of the four types of right effort. In the Bija sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s connected discourses), the Buddha has stated that just as the seeds and plants that need to be supported by earth and grounded in earth for their growth, development and maturity, likewise, the disciples need to be supported by morality and grounded in morality in order to be able to successfully develop the four types of right effort.

“Just as, bhikkhus, whatever seeds and plants come to development, growth and maturity, it is supported by earth and grounded in earth that these seeds and plants come to development, growth and maturity; in the same way, bhikkhus, it is supported by virtue and grounded in virtue that a bhikkhu develops the four right efforts, that he practises assiduously the four right efforts.” (7)

In the Samvarapphadana sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s numerical discourses), the Buddha has described the four types of effort as follows:

1. Effort by restraint (samvara)
2. Effort by abandonment (pahana)
3. Effort by development (bhavana)
4. Effort by protection (anurakkhana) (8)

Effort by restraint

As long as the mental defilements exist in the mind as latent tendencies (anusaya dhamma) at a dormant, subtle or preconscious level they can get aroused by a particular sense object received through a sense door. The seven latent tendencies are:

1. Latent tendency of desire for sense pleasures (kamaraganusaya)
2. Latent tendency of aversion (patighanusaya)
3. Latent tendency of conceit (mananusaya)
4. Latent tendency of wrong view (ditthanusaya)
5. Latent tendency of doubt (vicikiccanusaya)
6. Latent tendency of desire for existence (bhava-raganusaya)
7. Latent tendency of ignorance (avijjanusaya) (9)

A disciple can practise restraint by guarding against the sense objects received through the six sense faculties of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and the mind. For example, when a sense object is received through the eye, one practises restraint by not grasping the marks and the features of the visual object so that it cannot lead to unwholesome mental states of greed for pleasant visual objects or aversion for unpleasant visual objects. Similar restraint is practised against the sense objects received through the other five sense faculties. Two essential qualities that need to be developed in order to facilitate the restraint of the senses are mindfulness (sati) and wise attention (yoniso manasikara).

Effort by abandonment

A disciple does not tolerate the appearance of any unwholesome thoughts and gets rid of them by abandoning, dispelling, terminating and obliterating them. The unwholesome thoughts are of three types:

1. Thoughts of sensual desire (kama sankappa)

2. Thoughts of hatred (vyapada sankappa)

3. Thoughts of cruelty (vihimsa sankappa)

In the Vitakkasanthana sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya, the Buddha has described five techniques that one could apply in order to get rid of any unwholesome and evil thoughts that have arisen.

1. Reflect on a different object connected with wholesome thoughts
2. Ponder on the disadvantages of the unwholesome thoughts such as the confusion, delusion and suffering they can bring
3. Stop paying any attention to them
4. Reflect on removing the source such as the thought formation of the unwholesome thoughts
5. Restrain, subdue and beat down the evil mind by the power of good mind (10)

Effort by development

The disciple is to develop wholesome mental factors such as the seven factors of enlightenment based upon seclusion, dispassion and cessation. Energy or effort is also one of the seven factors of enlightenment.

Seven factors of enlightenment (satta bojjhanga)

1. Mindfulness (sati)
2. Investigation of dhammas (dhamma vicaya)
3. Energy or effort (viriya)
4. Rapture or joy (piti)
5. Tranquillity (passaddhi)
6. Concentration (samadhi)
7. Equanimity (upekkha)

Effort by protection

The disciple practises effort to protect an auspicious sign such as an object of concentration that has caused a wholesome state of the mind.  The objects of concentration that are described are the perception of a skeleton, the perception of a worm-infested corpse, the perception of a livid corpse, the perception of a festering corpse, the perception of a fissured corpse and the perception of a bloated corpse. When wholesome mental states develop they should be protected and nurtured to grow and reach full maturity and perfection.

Another group of mental defilements that need to be prevented from developing through sense restraint and abandoned when developed are the five mental hindrances (pancha nivarana). They are called mental hindrances as they are able to obstruct the spiritual path particularly during meditation, by negatively affecting the quality of the concentration of the mind and the development of insight. One may be able to identify one or more of the mental hindrances that are likely to negatively affect during the practice of meditation or in a habitual manner during life in general.

 The five mental hindrances:

1. Sensual desire (kamacchanda)
2. Ill-will (vyapada)
3. Sloth and torpor (thina-middha)
4. Restlessness and remorse (uddhacca-kukkucca)
5. Sceptical doubt (vicikicca) (11)

Sensual desire is the desire or craving for sense pleasures; pleasant visible objects, pleasant sounds, pleasant smells, pleasant tastes and pleasant tangible objects received through the five sense organs of eye, ear, nose, tongue and the body. Ill-will which includes several states of negative emotions such as anger, resentment, aversion, animosity etc. develops when unwise attention (ayoniso manasikara) is frequently given to any unpleasant object. Sloth and torpor is a negative mental state that can arise during meditation in the form of lethargy, laziness, lassitude and sluggishness of the mind which can hinder and obstruct the progress of meditation. Restlessness of the mind and remorse about unwholesome things that one has done or wholesome things that one has not done will hinder and obstruct the development of concentration and tranquillity of the mind during both concentration and insight meditation. Doubt may arise in relation to the Buddha, Dhamma (Buddha’s teaching), Sangha (Community of Buddhist monastics) and the training that is required to be followed such as the morality (sila), concentration (samadhi) and wisdom (panna).

In applying effort to develop one’s spiritual development, it needs to be maintained from the beginning till the final liberation. Depending on the stage of a particular task there are three types of effort:

1. Effort required to begin a particular action (arambha dhatu viriya)
2. Effort required to sustain an action in spite of obstacles (nikkama dhatu viriya)
3. Effort required to continue till the completion of an action (parakkama dhatu viriya)

To succeed in one’s spiritual journey and attain enlightenment, one needs to apply the right level of effort. Too much effort or too little effort could both hinder the path to enlightenment. In the Sona sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya, Venerable Sona had applied too much effort in his desire to become enlightened by keeping awake throughout the three months of the rainy season and maintaining only the two postures of sitting and walking. When he was just about to give up the monastic life as he could not succeed in his meditation practice due to the excess effort that he applied, the Buddha approached him to offer appropriate advice. Using the simile of the lute, the musical instrument that Sona had been skilled in playing before becoming a Buddhist monk, the Buddha got him to agree that when the strings of the lute are too tight or too loose it will not produce the right sound. Similarly, the Buddha advised him that in meditation, too much effort will lead to restlessness (uddacca) while too little effort will lead to sloth and torpor (thina middha) both of which are mental hindrances affecting the meditation process (12).

The factor of effort is an essential factor in one’s journey towards the final goal of enlightenment and appears nine times among the thirty seven requisites of enlightenment.

1. As the four types of effort
2. As effort in the four bases of power
3. As effort in the five spiritual faculties
4. As effort in the five spiritual powers
5. As effort in the  seven factors of enlightenment  
6. As right effort in the Noble Eight-fold Path (13)

The Buddha always maintained the fact that neither He nor any other supreme being can liberate anyone from their suffering or from the cycle of birth and death (samsara) and that one must liberate oneself through their own effort.

In the Canki sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya, the Buddha has emphasised the importance of right effort in one’s spiritual journey towards the final attainment of the Truth.

“Exertion is most helpful for the final attainment of the truth. If one didn’t make an exertion, one wouldn’t finally attain the truth. Because one makes an exertion, one finally attains the truth. Therefore exertion is most helpful for the final attainment of the truth.” (14)

References

1. Bhikkhu Bodhi, 1999, A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, translated from Pali by Mahathera Narada, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
2. Bhikkhu Bodhi1994, The Noble Eightfold Path, The Way to the End of Suffering, The Wheel Publications No: 308/311, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
3. Maurice Walshe 1987, Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Thus Have I Heard, Translation of The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications, London, England.
4. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi 1995, Kitagiri Sutta, Translation of the Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications.
5. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi 1995, Satipatthana Sutta, Translation of the Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications.
6. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi 1995, Mahasakuludayin Sutta, Translation of the Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications.
7. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Bija Sutta, Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
8. Bhikkhu Bodhi 2012, Samvarapphadana sutta, The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha; Anguttara Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
9. Bhikkhu Bodhi 2012, Anusaya sutta, The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha; Anguttara Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
10. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi 1995, Vitakkasanthana Sutta, Translation of the Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications.
11. Nyanaponika Thero 1993, Five Mental Hindrances and Their Conquest, Wheel Publication No: 26, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
12. Bhikkhu Bodhi 2012, Sona sutta, The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, Anguttara Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
13. Ven. Ladi Sayadaw 1971, The Requisites of Enlightenment: Bodhipakkhiya Dipani, Book Publication BP412S, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
14. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi 1995, Canki Sutta, Translation of the Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications.

                                                                     End.

Five Spiritual Powers (pancha bala) in Theravada Buddhism

Five Spiritual Powers (pancha bala)

 in Theravada Buddhism

 By Dr. Ari Ubeysekara

Introduction

Buddhism is the teaching of the Lord Gautama Buddha who lived in Northern India during the sixth and fifth centuries BC. Theravada Buddhism, “Thera” meaning elders and “Vada” meaning doctrine and hence the “Doctrine of the Elders” is the most conservative and oldest known tradition of Buddhism which is based on the original doctrine of Gautama Buddha recorded in the form of three baskets (tipitaka) in the Pali language.

Lord Gautama Buddha in many of His discourses has described thirty seven wholesome factors known as requisites of enlightenment (bodhipakkiya dhamma) that need to be cultivated in order to eliminate mental defilements and attain the final liberation from suffering and the state of Nibbana, the supra mundane state of ultimate happiness. In the Mahaparinibbana sutta of the Digha Nikaya (the Collection of the Buddha’s long discourses), the Buddha has emphasised the significance of learning, associating with and cultivating the thirty seven requisites of enlightenment for the benefit of the monks, and through compassion, for the benefit, well being and happiness of human and celestial beings.

“Monks, I say to you that these teachings of which I have direct knowledge and which I have made known to you, these you should thoroughly learn, cultivate, develop and frequently practise, so that the life of purity may be established and may long endure, for the welfare and happiness of the multitude, out of compassion for the world, for the benefit, well being, and happiness of Gods and men. And what bhikkhus are these teachings? They are the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four constituents of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of enlightenment, and the Noble Eight-fold Path” (1)

The thirty-seven requisites of enlightenment have been described in seven different groups.

Thirty-seven requisites of enlightenment

1. Four foundations of mindfulness (satara satipatthana)
2. Four types of right effort (satara sammappadana)
3. Four bases of mental power (satara iddhipada)
4. Five spiritual faculties (pancha indriya)
5. Five spiritual powers (pancha bala)
6. Seven factors of enlightenment (sapta bojjhanga)
7. The Noble Eight-fold Path (ariya atthangika magga)

Five spiritual powers (pancha bala)

• Faith or conviction (saddha bala)
• Energy or effort (viriya bala)
• Mindfulness (sati bala)
• Concentration (samadhi bala)
• Wisdom (panna bala)

The five spiritual faculties and the five spiritual powers are very similar in number and terminology.

 Five spiritual faculties (pancha indriya)

1. Faith or conviction (saddha indriya)
2. Energy or effort (viriya indriya)
3. Mindfulness (sati indriya)
4. Concentration (Samadhi indriya)
5. Wisdom (panna indriya)

A possible theory as to why the Buddha has included the same set of factors as two different sets has been discussed by some Buddhist scholars. According to this theory it is possible that the Buddha may have wanted to indicate that it is possible for the same set of factors to be developed in one’s mind at two different strengths serving two different purposes. The first set of the five spiritual faculties may help the practitioner to attain the first Noble stage of Stream Enterer (sotapanna) while the second set of five spiritual powers will help the practitioner to attain the final Noble stage of Arahanthood (2).

In Saketa sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya (Collection of the Buddha’s connected discourses) the Buddha has confirmed the fact that each spiritual faculty is same as the equivalent spiritual power as follows:

That, bhikkhus, which is the indriya of saddha is the bala of saddha, and that which is the bala of saddha is the indriya of saddha. That, which is the indriya of viriya is the bala of viriya, and that which is the bala of viriya is the indriya of viriya. That, which is the indriya of sati is the bala of sati, and that which is the bala of sati is the indriya of sati. That, which is the indriya of samadhi is the bala of samadhi, and that which is the bala of Samadhi is the indriya of samadhi. That, which is the indriya of panna is the bala of panna, and that which is the bala of panna is the indriya of panna” (3)

Development and strengthening of the five spiritual faculties is an essential task for a disciple who intends to follow the Buddhist spiritual path in order to gain enlightenment and escape from all suffering and the cycle of birth and death (samsara). The five spiritual faculties become gradually stronger as one attains the four Noble stages of spiritual path namely, Stream Entry (sotapanna), Once Returner (sakadagami), Non-Returner (anagami) and Arahant. When the five spiritual faculties are strong, well developed, and well founded they become spiritual powers which are firm, strong and powerful enough to oppose and control any unwholesome factors that are able to oppose the five spiritual faculties and hinder the spiritual progress.

1. Spiritual power of faith (saddha) is able to oppose and control doubt
2. Spiritual power of effort (viriya) is able to oppose and control laziness
3. Spiritual power of mindfulness (sati) is able to oppose and control heedlessness
4. Spiritual power of concentration (samadhi) is able to oppose and control distraction
5. Spiritual power of wisdom (panna) is able to oppose and control ignorance

Spiritual power of faith (saddha bala)

As discussed under the five spiritual faculties, faith as a power is not a developed stage of the blind, irrational, baseless or rootless faith (amulika saddha), but of the confidence, based on reason and experience (akarawathi saddha). In the Buddhist teaching faith has been described as the conviction and total acceptance of the qualities of the Triple Gem; Buddha, dhamma and Sangha. Faith in the Triple Gem becomes unshakable when a disciple attains the path of Stream Entry (sotapanna magga) because one finally loses any doubt about the Triple Gem at that stage.

Out of the innumerable qualities of the Buddha, nine qualities are venerated by the Buddhist disciples which are described in the following Pali terms: araham, samma-sambuddho, vijja carana sampanno, sugatho, lokavidu, anuththaro purisadhamma sarathi, satta deva manussanam, buddho and bhagava.

There are six qualities of the Buddha’s teaching (dhamma) that are venerated by the Buddhist disciples: svakkhato, sanditthiko, akaliko, ahipassiko, opanayiko and paccattam veditabbo vinnuhi.

There are nine qualities of the Buddhist monastics (sangha) which are venerated by the Buddhist disciples: supatipanno, ujupatipanno, nyayapatipanno, samicipatipanno, ahuneyyo, pahuneyyo, dakkhineyyo, anjalikaraneyyo, anuttaram punnakkhettam lokassa. (4)

There are three ways that would help to develop faith as a spiritual power:

1. Avoid people who lack faith in the Triple Gem
2. Associate with people who possess faith in the Triple Gem
3. Reflecting on qualities of the Triple Gem and listening to sermons that facilitates faith

Spiritual power of effort (viriya bala)

In the Vitthata sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya (Collection of the Buddha’s numerical discourses), the Buddha has defined the spiritual power of effort as the firm and steadfast effort to abandon unwholesome states and to acquire wholesome states. Effort as a spiritual power functions in order to develop wholesome and skillful mental states. One who has effort as a power will not hesitate to perform any wholesome action and will never postpone or avoid wholesome actions by using excuses such as: it is too cold, it is too hot, it is too early, it is too late, I am hungry, I have just eaten, I am tired after a journey or I have to embark on a journey etc. (5).

There are three ways that would help to develop effort as a spiritual power:

1. Avoid associating with people who lack effort in wholesome actions
2. Associate with Noble friends who can arouse effort and energy
3. Contemplate in arousing energy in difficult situations

Spiritual power of mindfulness (sati bala)

In the Vitthata sutta the Buddha has defined the spiritual power of mindfulness as excellent mindfulness and carefulness with the ability to recall and remember what was done and said a long time ago. Mindfulness becomes a power when one is able to develop mindfulness by contemplating on the four foundations of mindfulness with diligence (atapi), clear comprehension (sampajanna) and mindfulness (sati).

The four foundations of mindfulness

1. Contemplation of the body in the body (kayanupassana)
2. Contemplation of feelings in the feelings (vedananupassana)
3. Contemplation of mind in the mind (cittanupassana)
4. Contemplation of mind objects in the mind objects (dhammanupassana)

As within the group of spiritual faculties, mindfulness (sati) as a spiritual power has the key role of acting as the moderator for the other four powers to ensure that a proper balance is maintained among them. A balance between the powers of faith (saddha) and wisdom (panna) as well as between effort (viriya) and concentration (samadhi) is essential for the spiritual progress to continue smoothly and to be maintained properly.

There are four ways that would help to develop mindfulness as a spiritual power:

1. Mindfulness with clear comprehension
2. Avoiding association with confused and unmindful persons
3. Association with persons who cultivate mindfulness
4. Strong commitment towards developing mindfulness

Spiritual power of concentration (samadhi bala)

 In the Vitthata sutta, the Buddha has defined the spiritual power of concentration as the four deep absorption states (jhana). During concentration meditation (samatha bhavana), as the level of concentration on a chosen meditation object deepens it will lead to the suppression of the five mental hindrances of sensual desire (kamacchanda), ill-will (vyapada), sloth and torpor (thina middha), restlessness and remorse (uddacca kukkucca) and sceptical doubt (vicikicca). In addition to fixing the mind on the meditation object one-pointedly and suppression of the five mental hindrances, five qualities or attributes called Jhanic factors are also strong and well developed. They are:

1. Initial application (vitakka)
2. Sustained application (vicara)
3. Rapture or joy (piti)
4. Mental bliss or happiness (sukha)
5. One-pointedness with equanimity (ekaggata with upekkha)

The following four deep absorption states (jhana) arise in the mind during the periods of strong and deep concentration:

1. First Jhana
2. Second Jhana
3. Third Jhana
4. Fourth Jhana

The development of the states of deep mental absorptions and tranquility with the removal of the mental hindrances could provide the necessary foundation for the development of wisdom (panna) into the real nature of mind and matter phenomena (nama-rupa).

Spiritual power of wisdom (panna bala)

In the Vitthata sutta, the Buddha has defined the spiritual power of wisdom as the wisdom directed towards arising and passing away, which is noble and penetrating and directed towards the cessation of suffering. When wisdom becomes a power it leads to insight into the three universal characteristics of impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and not-self (anatta).

In the Aggabala sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha has stated that out of the five spiritual powers, the spiritual power of wisdom plays a dominant and significant role in relation to the other four spiritual powers. (6)

In the Datthabba sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha has described where the five spiritual  powers can be identified:

1. Spiritual power of faith as present in the four qualities of a Stream Enterer: (soatapanna)

• Unshakable confidence with wisdom (aveccappasada) in the Buddha
• Unshakable confidence with wisdom in the Buddha’s teaching (dhamma),
• Unshakable confidence with wisdom in the Buddhist monastics (sangha) and
• Unbroken and perfect morality that is pleasing to the Noble ones (ariya kanta sila

2. Spiritual power of effort as present in the four types of right effort:

• Effort to prevent the development of un-arisen unwholesome mental states
• Effort to abandon the unwholesome mental states that have arisen
• Effort to cultivate the un-arisen wholesome mental states
• Effort to maintain the wholesome mental states that have arisen

3. Spiritual power of mindfulness as present in the four foundations of mindfulness:

• Contemplating the body in the body (kayanupassana)
• Contemplating feelings in the feelings (vedananupassana)
• Contemplating mind in the mind (cittanupassana)
• Contemplating mind objects in mind objects (dhammanupassana)

4. Spiritual power of concentration as present in the four deep absorptions (jhana):

• First Jhana
• Second Jhana
• Third Jhana
• Fourth Jhana

5. Spiritual power of wisdom as present in the comprehension of the four Noble Truths:

• Truth of suffering (dukkha sacca)
• Truth of the origin of suffering (samudaya sacca)
• Truth of the cessation of suffering (nirodha sacca)
• Truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering (magga sacca) (7)

In the Bala Samyutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha likens the passage of a disciple who has developed the five spiritual powers to the Ganges river which flows to the East.

“Similar to the river Ganges which flows to the East, slopes to the East and inclines to the East, when a disciple develops and pursues the five spiritual powers of faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom dependent of seclusion, dependent on dispassion, dependent on cessation, he/she flows, slopes and inclines towards spiritual liberation” (8).

When these five spiritual powers are well developed and unshakable in a disciple, he/she can depend on them to facilitate a smooth movement towards liberation overpowering any obstacle that may arise on the journey.

References

1. Maurice Walshe, 1987, Maha Parinibbana Sutta, Thus Have I Heard, Translation of The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications, London, England.
2. Thanissaro Bhikku, November 2013, “Wings to Awakening: Part two”, Access to Insight, (BCBS) Edition.
3. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Saketa Sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
4. Ari Ubeysekara 2015, The Triple Gem in Buddhism: Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.https://drarisworld.wordpress.com/2015/07/27/the-triple-gem-in-buddhism-buddha-dhamma-and-sangha.
5. Bhikkhu Bodhi 2012, Vitthata sutta, The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, Anguttara Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
6. Bhikkhu Bodhi 2012, Aggabala sutta, The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, Anguttara Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
7. Bhikkhu Bodhi 2012, Datthabba sutta, The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, Anguttara Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
8. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Bala Samyutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.

End.

 

Four Bases of Mental Power in Theravada Buddhism

Four Bases of Mental Power (satara iddhipada)

in Theravada Buddhism

 By Dr. Ari Ubeysekara

Introduction

The final spiritual goal of the practitioners within Theravada Buddhism is to liberate from all suffering and the cycle of birth and death (samsara) by gaining enlightenment. This is the state of Nibbana, which has been described as a supra-mundane state of the highest bliss and eternal happiness devoid of the suffering of birth, disease, old age, death, grief, lamentation and despair.

In many of the discourses, the Buddha has referred to the significance of developing thirty-seven requisites of enlightenment in order to develop one’s mind and attain full liberation. For example, according to the Mahaparinibbana sutta of the Digha Nikaya, (Collection of Buddha’s long discourses), while addressing the monks before His passing away, the Buddha has stated,

“Monks, I say to you that these teachings of which I have direct knowledge and which I have made known to you, these you should thoroughly learn, cultivate, develop and frequently practise, so that the life of purity may be established and may long endure, for the welfare and happiness of the multitude, out of compassion for the world, for the benefit, well being, and happiness of Gods and men. And what, bhikkhus are these teachings? They are the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four constituents of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of enlightenment, and the Noble Eight-fold Path”. (1)

The thirty-seven factors of enlightenment are known in the Pali language as bodhipakkhiya dhamma. It means the requisites or qualities (dhamma), related (pakkhiya), to awakening or enlightenment (bodhi), in Buddhism. The Buddha has described the thirty-seven requisites of enlightenment in the following seven groups;

1. Four foundations of mindfulness (satara satipatthana)
2. Four types of right effort (satara sammappadana)
3. Four bases of mental power (satara iddhipada)
4. Five spiritual faculties (pancha indriya)
5. Five spiritual powers (pancha bala)
6. Seven factors of enlightenment (sapta bojjhanga)
7. The Noble Eight-fold Path (ariya atthangika magga)

Four Bases of Mental Power (satara iddhipada)

1. Desire or will to act (chanda)
2. Effort (viriya)
3. Mind (citta)
4. Investigation (vimamsa)

Unlike the other six groups of the requisites of enlightenment which are to be cultivated for the sole purpose of gaining enlightenment, when the group of the four bases of mental power are cultivated it can lead to both enlightenment and the development of mundane mental powers.

The Pali term iddhipada, “iddhi” meaning power, success, accomplishment or potency and “pada” meaning base or basis, is translated into English language as “bases of mental or psychic power” or “bases of spiritual power”. It can be said that cultivation of these four qualities to some extent is essential for the success or accomplishment of any task in one’s domestic, social, professional or religious life. However, in the context of Buddhist teaching they refer to qualities that facilitate the development of certain mundane and supra mundane mental powers during one’s spiritual development.

In the Iddhipada Vibhanga sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya (Collection of the Buddha’s connected discourses), the Buddha has described six types of mundane and supra mundane mental powers or super human knowledge that one is able to attain by successfully cultivating the four bases of mental powers. (2)

Six Super Human Mental Powers (iddhi)

1.  The ability to perform miracles (iddhi vidha)
2. The divine or celestial ear (clairaudience or dibbha-sota), the ability to hear subtle or coarse sounds not heard by the normal physical ear
3. The ability to read the mind of others (ceto-pariyaya-nana)
4. The ability to recollect the previous lives of oneself (pubbe-nivasanussati–nana)
5. The ability to see the birth and death of other beings according to their kammic potential (dibba-cakkhu)
6. The ability to know the extinction of one’s mental fermentations (asavakkhaya–nana) only in one who has attained Arahanthood.

It is recorded in the Buddhist literature that on the night of enlightenment under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, Northern India, the Lord Gautama Buddha developed the last three of the six mental powers. During the first watch of the night the Buddha developed the mental power of seeing His own past lives. During the second watch of the night He developed the mental ability to see the death and rebirth of other living beings followed by the ability to see the destruction of passions or taints (asava) during the third watch of the night.

Out of the six types of mental powers described above, the first five are mundane mental powers which are not indications of one’s liberation. The sixth power of the ability to know the extinction of mental fermentations is the only supra mundane mental power which indicates one’s liberation and enlightenment. In the Buddhist teaching the main goal of the spiritual practice and meditation is not the achievement of the mundane mental powers but the supra mundane knowledge of the eradication of the mental defilements and enlightenment which is the hardest to attain. The mundane mental powers can be attained even outside the Buddhist teaching by the development of the four bases of mental power and concentration.

In the Iddhipada Vibhanga sutta, the Buddha has described eight types of psychic miracles that one has the ability to perform by successfully developing the four bases of mental power.

1. Having been one he becomes many and having been many he becomes one
2. He can appear and vanish
3. He goes unimpeded through walls, ramparts, and mountains as if through space.
4. He dives in and out of the earth as if it were water
5. He walks on water without sinking as if it were dry land
6. Sitting cross legged he flies through the air like a winged bird
7. With his hand he touches and strokes even the sun and moon, so mighty and powerful
8. He exercises influence with his body even as far as the Brahma (celestial) worlds

In the Samannaphala sutta of the Digha Nikaya (Collection of the Buddha’s long discourses) while describing the fruits of contemplative life to King Ajasattu, the Buddha has stated how these miracle powers can be developed when a meditator has attained the fourth deep absorption state of concentration (fourth jhana) (3). However, the Buddha did not encourage the disciples to use one’s meditative practice to develop these mundane miracle powers as they can become a serious distraction and an obstacle to one’s spiritual journey towards enlightenment.

Though the Buddha is believed to have displayed miracle powers on some occasions mainly for the benefit of the disciples, the displaying of the miracle powers by the monks to lay people in order to impress them about the teaching was completely disapproved by the Buddha. For example, an Arahat monk named Pindola Bharadvaja displayed his miracle power in front of the people in the city named Rajagaha. A rich merchant had placed a sandalwood bowl on top of a bamboo cane and had challenged any ascetic with miracle powers to bring it down. Several ascetics of other religious sects had attempted to bring it down but had failed. Then Venerable Pindola, using his psychic powers, rose in the air and brought it down. On hearing of this incident the Buddha rebuked the monk stating that using one’s psychic powers to impress others was similar to a prostitute exhibiting her body for the sake of money.

Falsely claiming to have super-normal psychic powers by Buddhist monks was declared by the Buddha to be a serious offence which will lead to the expulsion from the Buddhist monastic community. As opposed to the psychic powers such as performing miracles or the ability to read others’ mind, the Buddha considered the miracle of giving instructions (anusasana prathiharya) to transform someone by abandoning unskilful qualities and developing skilful qualities as the most important psychic power. This involved giving necessary instructions to the disciples on what to do and what not to do for the purpose of eradicating mental defilements and attain liberation from suffering.

In the Buddhist teaching, the four bases of mental power are defined by a common formula consisting of three components, two of which are common to all four bases while the third component is unique to each base of mental power.

1. Concentration (samadhi) common to all four bases
2. Volitional formations of striving (padhana-sankhara) common to all four bases
3. The dominant factor arousing the concentration which is unique to each of the four bases of mental power.

Desire or will to act (chanda)

The base of mental power named “Chanda” in the Pali language can be translated as intention, zeal, aspiration, inspiration, will or whole-hearted desire to attain, reach, fulfill or accomplish a certain task. No task can be started or accomplished without this primary requirement of desire which will help one to persevere to face any possible distractions or obstructions. The desire here is of such a firm nature that nothing internal or external can negatively affect it’s progress until it’s full accomplishment.

The desire to perform a certain task can be either wholesome or unwholesome. A desire is positive or wholesome (kusala-chanda) when it is based on the wholesome roots of non-greed (alobha), non-hate (adosa) and non-delusion (amoha) and will lead to wholesome mental states and spiritual progress. A negative or unwholesome desire (akusala-chanda) is based on unwholesome roots of greed (lobha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha) and includes desire to enjoy sense objects received through the six sense doors. An unwholesome desire will lead to unwholesome mental states with negative effects on one’s spiritual progress. An unwholesome desire may also be associated with craving (tanha) and clinging (upadana) and will not subside on the accomplishment of the task but will lead to even more desire and craving. On the other hand, when a wholesome desire is accomplished it will subside with no further desire or craving.

In the Chandasamadhi sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha has stated three aspects to desire;

“Thus, this desire, this concentration due to desire, and these volitional formations of striving: this is called, bhikkhus, the basis for potencies endowed with concentration due to desire and with volitional formations of striving”

The three aspects are the desire (chanda), the unification of the mind or concentration attained due to desire (samadhi) and the associated volitional formations of striving or effort (padhana sankhara). The associated volitional formations of striving involve the four aspects of effort in maintaining a wholesome mental state.

1. Desire with effort for the non-arising of evil and unwholesome states that have not yet arisen
2. Desire with effort for the abandoning of the arisen evil and unwholesome states
3. Desire with effort for the arising of the wholesome states that have not yet arisen
4. Desire with effort for the steadiness of the arisen wholesome states (4)

Effort (viriya)

The Pali word “Viriya” meaning a skillful attitude of engaging in wholesome activities has been translated into English language as effort, energy, vigour, exertion, striving, diligence, persevering, persistence etc. The proximal cause for the arising of effort is a sense of spiritual urgency (samvega). This sense of spiritual urgency can arise when one reflects on birth, old age, disease, death, suffering in the lower planes of existence (apaya), suffering experienced in past lives, suffering to be experienced in future lives and suffering involved in searching for food in this life. (5)

A desire or will to do something is not sufficient unless it is accompanied by appropriate effort or energy to persevere with the task until it’s completion in the face of distractions and obstacles that one may encounter on the way. A disciple with adequate effort in oneself will not hesitate to begin the spiritual journey even when advised that it is going to be an arduous and a long journey filled with innumerable hardships. A disciple with adequate effort will not be discouraged and will not slow down or give up the journey even when experiencing setbacks and severe hardships on the way. On the other hand, a disciple with weak effort and energy will either not begin the task of the spiritual journey when warned of possible hardships and lengthy periods of time involved or will be discouraged and even give up in the face of setbacks and hardships when perseverance and more effort is called for.

So, one needs strong, persistent and unshakable effort to cultivate and complete the path of liberation by oneself. In the Kitagiri sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya (Collection of the Buddha’s middle length discourses) the Buddha has indicated the degree of effort and determination that one requires in order to attain that goal;

“Gladly would I let the flesh & blood in my body dry up, leaving just the skin, tendons, & bones, but if I have not attained what can be reached through human firmness, human persistence, human striving, there will be no relaxing my persistence” (6)

In applying to develop one’s spiritual development effort needs to be maintained from the beginning till the final liberation. Depending on the stage of a particular task there are three types of effort:

1. Effort required to begin a particular action (arambha dhatu viriya)
2. Effort required to sustain an action in spite of obstacles (nikkama dhatu viriya)
3. Effort required to continue till the completion of an action (parakkama dhatu viriya)

In the Chandasamadhi sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha has stated three aspects to effort as a base of mental power;

 “Thus, this exertion, this concentration due to exertion, these volitional formations of striving: this is called, bhikkhus, the basis for potencies endowed with concentration due to exertion and with volitional formations of striving”

The three aspects are the effort (viriya), the concentration (samadhi) attained due to effort and the associated volitional formations of striving or effort (padhana sankhara). The associated volitional formations of striving involve the four aspects of effort for the non-arising of evil and unwholesome states that have not yet arisen, abandoning of the arisen evil and unwholesome states, arising of the wholesome states that have not yet arisen and steadiness of the arisen wholesome states.

Mind (citta)

“Citta”, meaning consciousness or mind is an essential component as a base of mental power in one’s spiritual journey along with the other three factors. Even if one has strong desire and effort in carrying out a particular task one also needs to be always conscious and mindful of the task in hand in order to carry it out till it’s full accomplishment. One needs to make a total commitment to the wholesome task in hand without allowing the mind to stray away from the task. One has to be thoughtful and mindful of the ultimate spiritual target on a continuous basis to know where one is at a particular stage of the entire process. When wholehearted attention is consistently paid to the task in hand it will inform the disciple when more effort is needed and when perseverance is called for in order to complete the task successfully.

In the Chandasamadhi sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha has stated three aspects to mind (citta);

 “Thus, this mind, this concentration due to the mind, and these volitional formations of striving: this is called, bhikkhus, the basis for potencies endowed with concentration due to the mind and with volitional formations of striving”

The three aspects are the mind (citta), the unification of the mind or concentration (samadhi) attained due to the mind and the associated volitional formations of striving or effort (padhana sankhara). The associated volitional formations of striving involve the four aspects of effort for the non-arising of evil and unwholesome states that have not yet arisen, abandoning of the arisen evil and unwholesome states, arising of the wholesome states that have not yet arisen and improving upon the arisen wholesome states.

Investigation (vimamsa)

Vimamsa which has several meanings such as investigation, discrimination, examination, reasoning, ingenuity, analysis and wisdom is perhaps the most significant of the four bases of mental power in terms of it’s role in facilitating the process of liberation from suffering and enlightenment. A spirit of investigation is necessary throughout the process of developing the mental powers and also maintaining and facilitating the other three bases.

An investigation into the suffering and it’s causes, suffering and the disadvantages associated with the repeated process of life and death (samsara) including the possibility of being born in the lower planes of extreme suffering and the benefits of developing the mental powers will lead to the arousing of desire (chanda) to begin the spiritual practice. Once the process is begun, one needs to constantly examine and investigate through wise reflection, the level of effort, mind and the concentration attained in order to make necessary adjustments to attain a successful outcome. Wise investigation is also needed to reflect on, analyse and understand difficult and deeper aspects of the Buddha’s teaching which needs to be assimilated into one’s spiritual practice.

In the Chandasamadhi sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha has stated three aspects to investigation (vimamsa);

“Thus, this investigation, this concentration due to investigation, and these volitional formations of striving: this is called, bhikkhus, the basis for potencies endowed with concentration due to investigation and with volitional formations of striving”

The three aspects are investigation (vimamsa), the unification of the mind or concentration (samadhi) attained due to investigation and the associated volitional formations of striving or effort (padhana sankhara). The associated volitional formations of striving involve the four aspects of effort for the non-arising of evil and unwholesome states that have not yet arisen, abandoning of the arisen evil and unwholesome states, arising of the wholesome states that have not yet arisen and steadiness of the arisen wholesome states.

In the Viraddha sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha has stated the importance of developing the four bases of mental power in one’s spiritual journey. According to the Buddha those who have neglected the development of the four bases of mental power have neglected the Noble path leading to the eradication of suffering, while those who have developed them have undertaken the Noble path to liberate themselves from suffering.

“Whoever, bhikkhus, has neglected the four bases for potencies, has neglected the Noble path leading to the proper destruction of suffering. Whoever, bhikkhus, has undertaken the four bases for potencies, has undertaken the Noble path leading to the proper destruction of suffering” (7)

In the Apara sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha has once again emphasised the significance of developing the four bases of mental power by stating that one who has developed them will be going from the near shore to the far shore. Here, the near shore refers to the cycle of birth and death (samsara) while the far shore refers to enlightenment (Nibbana).

“Bhikhus, there are these four bases of spiritual power, when cultivated and often developed, lead to going from the near shore to the far shore” (8)

In the Iddhipada Vibhanga sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha has described the details of how one should develop the four bases of mental power in a proper and orderly way in order to achieve the best results.

One should develop the four bases of power endowed with concentration founded on desire, effort, mind or investigation and the volitional formations of striving as follows;

1. Thinking they will be neither overly sluggish nor overly active (Laziness makes them sluggish while restlessness makes them overly active)
2. Thinking they will be neither inwardly restricted nor outwardly scattered (Sloth and drowsiness make them inwardly restricted while the five sense pleasures make them outwardly scattered)
3. Perceiving what is before the same as what is after and what is after the same as before (Perception of what is before and after are well attended to in the same way)
4. Perceiving what is below the same as above and what is above the same as below (Reflect on the body consisting of the 32 parts from the soles of the feet on up and from the crown of the head on down)
5. Practising by night as by day and by day as by night (By using the same modes, signs and themes to develop the four bases during both day and night)
6. Developing a brightened mind by means of an open and unhampered awareness (By establishing the perceptions of light and day time)

When a meditator successfully develops the four bases of mental power following the above schedule the six types of super human mental power appear, five of which are mundane while the sixth power, the knowledge of the destruction of the fermentations is a supra mundane mental power. (9)

Due to the immense significance in the spiritual journey towards enlightenment the Buddha included the four bases of mental power among the thirty-seven requisites of enlightenment. Every Arahant including the Buddha Himself had to fully develop these four bases in order to become enlightened. Although all four bases of mental power may be present in some quantity throughout the process of spiritual development, at any one point of time one of them may become dominant in arousing concentration (samadhi) and associated volitional formations of striving (padhana sankhara). Out of the six super-human mental powers that are attainable by developing the four bases of mental power, the first five mental powers are mundane powers. Only the knowledge of the destruction of the mental fermentations (asavakkhaya nana) is supra mundane and guides towards enlightenment.

References

1. Maurice Walshe, 1987, Maha Parinibbana Sutta, Thus Have I Heard, Translation of The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications, London, England.
2. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Iddhipada Vibhanga sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
3. Maurice Walshe, 1987, Samannaphala Sutta, Thus Have I Heard, Translation of the Long Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications, London, England.
4. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Chandasamadhi sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
5. Bhikkhu Bodhi, 1999, A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, translated from Pali by Mahathera Narada, , Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
6. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi 1995, Kitagiri Sutta, Translation of the Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications.
7. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Viraddha sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
8. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Apara sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
9. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Pubba sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.

End.

 

Four foundations of Mindfulness in Theravada Buddhism

Four Foundations of Mindfulness in Theravada Buddhism

 By Dr. Ari Ubeysekara

Introduction

Although the Pali word “Sati” has several meanings such as memory, mindfulness, recollection and wakefulness, in Buddhist teachings it is generally considered as the mindful awareness to the content of one’s experience as it manifests from moment to moment in the immediate present. Mindful awareness is paying bare attention to whatever happens from moment to moment, whether it is a physical or a mental process, without any reaction or judgement in order to have insight into its true nature. Mindfulness has been described as a process, an event and as a mental factor that arises and passes away momentarily.

There are two main types of meditation in Theravada Buddhism:

1. Concentration or tranquil meditation (samatha-bhavana)
2. Insight meditation (vipassana-bhavana)

The aim of concentration meditation is to cultivate a state of deep concentration or one- pointedness of mind and tranquility, by focusing one’s attention on a single meditation object. This state will be maintained as long as the attention of the meditator is completely absorbed into that particular object. As the concentration of the mind becomes deeper and deeper, different stages of calmness and joy called Jhana or deep mental absorptions arise which are free from any mental hindrances. In addition to attaining the states of deep mental absorptions and tranquility, the deep state of concentration and the removal of the mental hindrances can be the necessary foundation for the development of insight or wisdom into the real nature of physical and mental phenomena.

Insight meditation is the technique of mental development which helps the meditator to see things as they really are and will eventually lead to the eradication of mental defilements and final liberation from suffering. While concentration meditation has both a Buddhist and a non-Buddhist background, insight meditation is a meditation technique that is unique to Buddhism, discovered by Lord Gautama Buddha during His quest for the path of liberation. Vipassana is a Pali word, vi meaning intensive, deep or clear and passana meaning seeing or perceiving, so vipassana or insight meditation is the technique of deep or clear seeing or perceiving, to gain an insight into physical and mental phenomena as they really are. Insight meditation helps the meditator to gain an insight into the three common characteristics of all aspects of mentality and materiality (nama-rupa) namely; impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha) and not-self (anatta).

In Theravada Buddhism, Mindfulness is practised as the method of training for insight meditation. This technique of mindfulness is derived from one of the most important discourses by the Buddha named “Satipatthana sutta”. “Sati” means mindfulness, and “patthana” means foundation, so Satipatthana means foundations of mindfulness. In the Buddha’s teachings recorded in Pali language Satipatthana sutta appears as the 10^th discourse of the Majjhima Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s middle length discourses). A longer version of the same sutta called Maha Satipatthana sutta in which the four Noble Truths are also explained in detail appears as the 22^nd discourse of the Digha Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s long discourses).

Satipatthana sutta

According to Buddhist literature, Lord Gautama Buddha was staying in the country of Kurus, in a small market town called Kammassadamma when this discourse was delivered to the Buddhist monks. The country of Kurus is believed to have been around the area of modern Delhi in India. It is said that the people of Kuru had a reputation for good health, virtuous behaviour, and wisdom and that the Buddha had delivered a few of His most important discourses including the Satipatthana sutta in the country of Kurus.

In the Satipatthana sutta, the Buddha stated the four foundations of mindfulness as the direct way to attain the following:

“Purification from all the defilements
Overcoming of sorrow
Overcoming of lamentation
Destruction of all the suffering
Destruction of mental grief
Entry into the Noble Path
Realisation of Nibbana”

In this discourse, the Buddha addressed the audience as bhikkhus, but it has been emphasised in the teachings that the word bhikkhu included monks (bhikkhu), nuns (bhikkhuni) as well as the male (upasaka) and female (upasika) lay dhamma practitioners working towards the liberation from all suffering and escape from the cycle of birth and death (samsara). In the Buddhist literature the compound term Satipatthana has been translated in two different ways. Firstly, it has been translated as Sati-patthana meaning foundation of mindfulness and secondly it has been translated as Sati-upatthana meaning establishment of mindfulness.

The four foundations of mindfulness

1. Contemplating the body in the body (kayanupassana)
2. Contemplating feelings in the feelings (vedananupassana)
3. Contemplating mind in the mind (cittanupassana)
4. Contemplating mind objects in mind objects (dhammanupassana) (1)

Contemplating the body in the body (kayanupassana)

In contemplation of the body, six different aspects of developing mindfulness have been described:

1. Mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati)
2. Mindfulness of the four body postures (iriyapatha)
3. Clear comprehension (sampajanna)
4. Mindfulness of repulsiveness of the body (patikulamanasikara)
5. Mindfulness of the four material elements (dhathumanasikara)
6. Nine cemetery contemplations (navasivathika)

Mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati)

Mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati), where “sati” means mindfulness and “anapana” means breathing in and out, is the meditation technique of developing mindfulness by focusing on the naturally occurring in-breath and out-breath with no attempt made to change the rhythm of breathing in any way. Although mindfulness of breathing can be used as an object of meditation in developing deep concentration and absorption states (jhana) in concentration meditation (samadhi bhavana), in mindfulness meditation it is used mainly to develop insight into the real nature of physical and mental phenomena leading to the final liberation from all suffering.

As an appropriate place to practise mindfulness of breathing meditation, the Buddha has advised the meditator to go to the forest, to the foot of a tree or an empty place. Having sat down with legs crossed and keeping the body erect, the meditator mindfully pays attention to the incoming and out going breath. Just as a clever turner or a turner’s apprentice, turning long, understands: I turn long; or turning short, understands: I turn short; the meditator is advised to have awareness when breathing in long or breathing out long as well as when breathing in short and when breathing out short. Similarly, the meditator maintains awareness while breathing in and out, experiencing the whole breath-body, which is the complete process of breathing in and breathing out and also calming the activity of breathing. The meditator is to continue with contemplating the body just as the body with no self either in him/herself or in others and both in him/herself and others, followed by contemplating the origination of things in the body, dissolution of things in the body and both origination and dissolution of things in the body. Here, the origination of things in the body is said to include the factors of the physical body, nasal passage and consciousness that are required for the breathing to take place. Having observed the phenomena of origination and dissolution of things in the body with clear awareness, the meditator is able to be detached without clinging to any factors of mind or matter in the world.

Mindfulness of the four body postures (iriyapatha)

Mindfulness of the four body postures of standing, walking, sitting and lying down belongs to the next step of contemplation of the body. Here, the meditator maintains awareness of the different postures of the body as the body is in that posture. For example:

• While standing the meditator is aware, “I am standing”
• While walking the meditator is aware, “I am walking”
• While sitting the meditator is aware, “I am sitting”
• While lying down the meditator is aware, “I am lying down.”

Clear comprehension (sati sampajanna)

In this form of contemplation of the body, the meditator performs day-to-day physical activities with clear comprehension and understanding. These activities may include going forward and backward, looking straight ahead or elsewhere, bending or stretching the limbs, dressing, eating, drinking, chewing, urinating, defecating, walking, sitting, standing, falling asleep, waking, speaking, remaining quiet, etc.

Mindfulness of repulsiveness of the body (patikulamanasikara)

In this meditation technique, the meditator focuses the attention and reflects on the various parts of the body, both solid and fluid, which are considered impure and loathsome. Thirty two different parts have been described, which are head hair, body hair, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, tendons, bone, bone marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, pleura, spleen, lungs, intestines, mesentery, stomach, faeces, brain, bile, phlegm, blood, pus, sweat, fat, tears, skin oil, saliva, nasal mucus, fluid in the joints and urine.

Mindfulness of the four material elements (dhatumanasikara)

Here, the meditator reflects upon the four basic elements or the fundamental characteristics of the body:

1. Earth element or solidity (pathavi dhathu)
2. Water element or fluidity (apo dhathu)
3. Fire element or heat (tejo dhathu)
4. Air element or motion (vayo dhathu)

Nine cemetery contemplations (navasivathika)

In this technique, the meditator contemplates upon the nine stages of a decomposing corpse, reflecting that one’s own body is of the same nature as the decomposing corpse. One’s own body will also decompose and one cannot escape from it. The nine stages are:

1. A corpse that is dead for one, two or three days, swollen, blue and festering
2. A corpse that is being eaten by various animals and different kinds of creatures
3. A corpse that is reduced to a skeleton, held together by the tendons with some remaining flesh and blood
4. A corpse that is reduced to a skeleton, held together by the tendons with no flesh but smeared with blood
5. A corpse that is reduced to a skeleton held together by the tendons but without flesh or blood
6. A corpse that is reduced to loose bones scattered in all directions
7. A corpse that is reduced to bones with a conch like colour
8. A corpse that is reduced to bones more than a year old, lying in a heap
9. A corpse that is reduced to rotten bones becoming dust

Contemplating feelings in the feelings (vedananupassana)

In this meditation technique, the meditator reflects upon the various feelings experienced which can be pleasant, unpleasant or neutral (neither pleasant nor unpleasant).

• While experiencing a pleasant feeling, the meditator is aware “I am experiencing a pleasant feeling”
• While experiencing an unpleasant feeling, the meditator is aware “I am experiencing an unpleasant feeling”
• While experiencing a feeling that is neither painful nor pleasant, the meditator is aware “I am experiencing a neither painful nor pleasant feeling”
• While experiencing a pleasant feeling associated with sense pleasures (samisa), the meditator is aware “I am experiencing a pleasant feeling associated with sense pleasures”, or while experiencing a pleasant feeling not associated with sense pleasures (niramisa), the meditator is aware “I am experiencing a pleasant feeling not associated with sense pleasures”
• While experiencing an unpleasant feeling associated with sense pleasures, the meditator is aware “I am experiencing an unpleasant feeling associated with sense pleasures”, or while experiencing an unpleasant feeling not associated with sense pleasures, the meditator is aware “I am experiencing an unpleasant feeling not associated with sense pleasures”
• While experiencing a neither painful nor pleasant feeling associated with sense pleasures, the meditator is aware “I am experiencing a neither painful nor pleasant feeling associated with sense pleasures”, or while experiencing a neither painful nor pleasant feeling not associated with sense pleasures, the meditator is aware “I am experiencing a neither painful nor pleasant feeling not associated with sense pleasures”

Having established mindfulness of different aspects of feeling as above, the meditator is to continue to contemplate and recognize  different feelings as just feelings which appear and disappear due to causes, both in him /her self and in others, and that they are just phenomena not associated with an “I”, “self” or a “soul.” Having thus recognized the arising and cessation of feelings and not identifying with them, the meditator is able to be detached from them without reacting either with craving or aversion.

Contemplating mind in the mind (cittanupassana)

Contemplation of the mind is a very important foundation as the mind is the forerunner of all the mental, verbal and physical actions. In this meditation technique, the meditator is aware:

• when a mind with lust arises
• when a mind without lust arises
• when a mind with hate arises
• when a mind without hate arises
• when a mind with ignorance arises
• when a mind without ignorance arises
• when a mind with sloth and torpor arises
• when a distracted mind arises
• when a developed mind arises
• when an undeveloped mind arises
• when a superior mind arises
• when an inferior mind arises
• when a concentrated mind arises
• when an un-concentrated mind arises
• when a mind temporarily free from defilements arises
• when a mind not free from defilements arises

In this way, the meditator develops the ability to perceive the mind as just the mind with no concept of “I, Self” or Soul” both in him/herself and in others which appears and disappears as phenomena due to causes, and remains without clinging to anything in the world, the world here meaning mind and matter (nama-rupa).

Contemplating mind objects in mind objects (dhammanupassana)

Although there are different interpretations of the word dhamma, it appears that in the context of the contemplating of mental objects, it applies to factors that would be hindrances to realising the four Noble Truths and the factors that would facilitate, and eventually lead to the realization of, Nibbana.

There are five categories of mental objects: 

1. The five mental hindrances (panchanivarana)
2. The five aggregates of clinging (panchakkhanda)
3. The six internal and external sense bases (salayatana)
4. The seven enlightenment factors (satta bojjhanga)
5. The four Noble Truths (chatur ariya sacca)

 The five mental hindrances

1. Sensual desires (kamacchanda)
2. Ill-will (vyapada)
3. Sloth and torpor (thina-middha)
4. Restlessness and remorse (uddhacca-kukkucca)
5. Sceptical doubt (vicikicca)

In this technique of contemplation of the five hindrances, the meditator is aware when there is sense desire or when there is no sense desire, how a non-arisen sense desire arises, abandoning of an arisen sense desire, and non-arising of an abandoned sense desire in the future. In a similar way, the meditator will contemplate on the other four hindrances of ill-will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and remorse, and sceptical doubt, while being mindful of them just as phenomena with no involvement of “I”, “Self” or “Soul”, detached and without clinging to anything.

The five aggregates of clinging

1. The corporeal body (rupa)
2. Feeling (vedana)
3. Perception (sanna)
4. Mental formations (sankhara)
5. Consciousness (vinnana)

Here, the meditator becomes aware of each of the five aggregates of clinging as well as the appearance and dissolution of each one of them. In such a way, the meditator is able to contemplate the five aggregates of clinging as just phenomena with no “I”, “Self” or “Soul” without clinging to anything.

The six internal and external sense bases

These are the six internal sense organs or bases and the six sense objects received by those internal sense bases.

1. The eye and the visible objects
2. The ear and the sound
3. The nose and the odour
4. The tongue and the taste
5. The body and the touch
6. The mind and the mental objects

In contemplating the six internal and the six external sense bases, the meditator is aware of the eye, the visible object and the bondage or fetter arising from them, how an un-arisen fetter arises, how an arisen fetter is abandoned, and how an abandoned fetter will not arise in the future. In a similar way, the meditator contemplates in relation to the other five sense bases and objects. The meditator is thus able to contemplate the mental objects of the six internal and the six external sense bases in him/herself and in others as just phenomena with no “I”, “Self” or “Soul”, detached and not clinging to anything.

The seven enlightenment factors

1. Mindfulness (sati)
2. Investigation of the dhamma (dhamma vicaya)
3. Effort (viriya)
4. Joy (piti)
5. Tranquillity (passaddhi)
6. Concentration (samadhi)
7. Equanimity (upekkha)

In contemplating the seven factors of enlightenment as just mental objects, the mediator is aware when the mindfulness factor has arisen, when the mindfulness factor has not arisen, when the un-arisen mindfulness factor arises, and when the arisen mindfulness factor reaches its completion. In a similar way, the meditator contemplates on the other six enlightenment factors. The meditator thus contemplates the seven factors of enlightenment as just phenomena with no “I”, “Self” or “Soul” in him / her self and others, detached and without clinging to anything.

The four Noble Truths

1. The Noble Truth of suffering (dukkha-sacca)
2. The Noble Truth of the origin of suffering (samudaya-sacca)
3. The Noble Truth of the cessation of suffering (nirodha-sacca)
4. The Noble Truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering (magga-sacca)

The Noble Truth of suffering, as expounded by the Buddha in His first sermon named Dhammachakkappavatthana sutta, consists of the following:

“Birth is suffering
Ageing is suffering
Sickness is suffering
Death is suffering
Sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair are suffering
Association with the unpleasant is suffering
Dissociation from the pleasant is suffering
Not to receive what one desires is suffering
In short, the five aggregates connected with clinging is suffering” (2)

The Noble Truth of the origin of suffering is described as craving (or desire) and is of three types:

1. Desire for sense pleasures (kama tanha)
2. Desire for becoming or continuing to exist (bhava tanha)
3. Desire for non-existence or annihilation (vibhava tanha)

The Noble Truth of the cessation of suffering is the attainment of the state of Nibbana by the complete removal of all forms of craving (tanha).

The Noble Truth of the path leading to the cessation of all suffering is the Middle Path (majjhima patipada) or the Noble Eight-fold Path consisting of:

1. Right view (samma ditthi)
2. Right intention (samma sankappa)
3. Right speech (samma vaca)
4. Right action (samma kammanta)
5. Right livelihood (samma ajiva)
6. Right effort (samma vayama)
7. Right mindfulness (samma sati)
8. Right concentration (samma samadhi)

In contemplating the four Noble Truths as just four Noble Truths, the meditator is aware of them as just mental objects or phenomena with no “I”, “Self” or “Soul” in him/herself and others, detached and without clinging to anything.

A meditator needs to develop mindfulness by contemplating on all four aspects of the body, feelings, mind and mind objects, as described by the Buddha, before one can transcend suffering and attain enlightenment and the final state of Nibbana. However, depending on one’s character and temperament, one may have to contemplate on one of the four aspects to begin. The difficulty is for one to have a clear understanding of one’s own temperament and, hence, a meditator will typically have to contemplate on all four aspects before finding out exactly which aspect is more suitable to start the process of contemplation (3).

According to the scriptures, the Buddha declared in the Satipatthana sutta that by practising the four foundations of mindfulness with diligence, clear comprehension and mindfulness, one is able to attain the state of full liberation called Arahanthood or the state of Non-Returner (anagami) in a period of between seven days and seven years.

References

1. Walshe, Maurice (1987), ‘Mahasatipatthana sutta’ in “Thus Have I Heard”, The Long Discourses of the Buddha DighaNikaya, Wisdom Publications, London.
2. Story, Francis (1961), ‘Foundations of Buddhism: The Four Noble Truths’, The Wheel Publication No. 34/35, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
3. Soma Thera (2003), The Way of Mindfulness, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.

End.

Five Spiritual Faculties (pancha indriya) in Theravada Buddhism

Five Spiritual Faculties (pancha indriya)

in Theravada Buddhism

By Dr. Ari Ubeysekara

Introduction

Lord Gautama Buddha in many of His discourses has stated the significance of cultivating the thirty seven requisites of enlightenment (bodhipakkiya dhamma). They need to be cultivated in order to eliminate mental defilements, develop the mind and attain the final liberation from suffering and the state of Nibbana, the supra mundane state of ultimate happiness. The Buddha has described these thirty seven requisites of enlightenment in seven different groups:

1. Four foundations of mindfulness (satipatthana)
2. Four types of right effort (sammappadana)
3. Four bases of mental power (iddhipada)
4. Five spiritual faculties (pancha indriya)
5. Five spiritual powers (pancha bala)
6. Seven factors of enlightenment (sapta bojjhanga)
7. The Noble Eight-fold Path (ariya atthangika magga)

The five spiritual faculties also known as controlling faculties, are five qualities of the mind that one is expected to develop up to their maturity during one’s spiritual journey towards the final enlightenment.

Five spiritual faculties (pancha indriya)

1. Faith or conviction (saddha)
2. Energy or effort (viriya)
3. Mindfulness (sati)
4. Concentration (samadhi)
5. Wisdom (panna)

The word “Indriya” is derived from “Indra”, the chief of the Vedic Gods, a very powerful and dominant figure indicating the dominant and powerful nature of these five faculties. As such, each one of the five spiritual faculties is known to have dominance and control over their specific aspect of someone’s mind.

It could be said that we already possess these five mental qualities to some extent in our mundane life which are necessary to carry out any particular task in our day to day life successfully or to learn any specific skill. So, Gautama Buddha has selected a set of mental qualities that a spiritual seeker may already posses in various strengths and encouraged them to develop each one of them further until they become enlightenment factors. They need to be developed and cultivated until they become dominant and controlling factors so that they are able to confront and dominate over any opposing factors or mental defilements that can hinder one’s spiritual development. The five spiritual faculties develop and become gradually stronger as one attains the four Noble stages of spiritual path namely, Stream Entry (sotapanna), Once Returner (sakadagami), Non-Returner (anagami) and Arahant. When the five spiritual faculties are fully developed they become five spiritual powers (pancha bala) which are unshakable and able to withstand and deter arising of any opposing factor.

In Buddhist literature the term “Pancha indriya” also refers to the five physical sense organs of the eye, ear, nose, tongue and the body through which one receives sense objects from the external world. But, here it refers to the five spiritual qualities of the mind that need to be developed during the path of liberation.

According to Buddhist literature only a Samma Sambuddha such as Lord Gautama Buddha, through a special mental power known as the Indriya Paro Pariyatti Nana (one of six types of incomparable knowledge only of a Samma Sambuddha) would be able to recognize the presence and the maturity of the five spiritual faculties in another person.

In the Jagara sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s connected discourses), in response to a riddle in verse form from a visiting deity, the Buddha has stated how the five mental hindrances and the five spiritual faculties work in opposite directions. The five mental hindrances are sensual desire (kamacchanda), ill-will (vyapada), sloth and topor (thina middha), restlessness and remorse (uddacca kukkucca) and sceptical doubt (vicikicca). In this discourse the Buddha has stated that when the five spiritual faculties are awake the five mental hindrances are asleep and when the five spiritual faculties are asleep, the five mental hindrances are awake. At the same time, while the five mental hindrances help one to accumulate mental defilements, the five spiritual faculties help one to purify oneself. (1)

1. Faith or conviction (saddha)

What has been translated as faith in English language appears as Saddha in Pali language or Sraddha in Sanskrit language meaning faith, trust, devotion, or confidence. Some scholars prefer the terms trust and confidence based on reasoning and investigation.

Two types of faith have been described in Buddhist teaching:

1. Blind, irrational, baseless or rootless faith (amulika saddha)
2. Confidence, based on reason and experience (akarawathi saddha)

Buddha did not encourage the disciples to blindly follow Him or His teaching, but encouraged them to doubt, explore and investigate so that one can develop confidence in the teaching through experiential verification. In Buddhism which is a non-theistic religion, faith or devotion associated with strong emotions can become an obstacle to spiritual development.

One needs to have some understanding of the universality of suffering and the inevitability of experiencing pain, anxiety, grief etc. to develop a willingness to look for a way out of suffering. When one hears of the Buddha’s teaching that there is an identified cause of suffering which can be removed and that the Buddha has shown a way to come out of suffering, one naturally develops some initial faith to enter and test that path. Faith is thus the first spiritual faculty as faith in the Buddha’s enlightenment and the teaching can act as an essential and powerful motivating factor particularly in the initial stages of a disciple’s spiritual journey towards liberation from suffering.

Having commenced the spiritual journey with a certain degree of initial faith, one can then proceed to develop the rest of the spiritual faculties of effort, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom. Having initial faith or trust does not mean that one surrenders oneself to a higher authority for salvation, because Buddhists are aware through the Buddha’s teaching that they can attain liberation only through their own effort and that neither the Buddha nor any other superior being can liberate anyone else from suffering. This initial faith can also create the confidence that the enlightenment that was attained by the Buddha and His disciples in the past can also be attained by others by following the same path.

When one investigates the evidence and develops conviction through personal realization, the initial faith that one had in the beginning of the spiritual practice will naturally lead to reasoned confidence. Hence, initial faith has been described as the seed that gives rise to the tree bearing the fruit of liberation and deliverance from all suffering.

In Buddhist teachings, faith has been compared to a boat that will ferry one across the flood of wrong views to safety, a strong branch to lift one on to a giant tree of virtue when pursued by the wild oxen of passions, the door that shuts out the serpent of disbelief and to a strong cable that holds a ship to it’s anchor in stormy weather. Faith keeps a man attached to the spiritual goal during the destructive storms of scepticism that may trouble him while he is still far from the Noble path. (2)

Faith within the Buddhist teaching refers to confidence in the Triple Gem; Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.

1. Buddha – The self Awakened One, fully enlightened through the realization of the four Noble Truths and then showed the path of liberation to the world
2. Dhamma – The teachings of the Buddha, which when cultivated pave the way out of suffering
3. Sangha – The Monastics who are either liberated or are on the path of liberation by following the Buddha’s teaching

According to Abhidhamma (the collection of the Buddha’s higher teachings), faith (saddha) is a wholesome mental factor (cetasika), which can be described as the fore-runner to all types of wholesome mental actions. Faith here is the confidence in Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha and in the principles of Buddha’s teachings and is one of the 19 universal beautiful mental factors (sobhana sadharana cetasika).

Faith increases gradually as one makes progress through the spiritual path and experience the true reality of all phenomena directly and personally. When one attains the first Noble stage of Stream Entry (sotapanna) with the total elimination of any sceptical doubt (vicikicca), faith in the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha becomes unwavering and unshakable (aveccappasada). There are four factors associated with one who has attained Stream Entry:

1. Unshakable faith in the Buddha
2. Unshakable faith in the Dhamma
3. Unshakable faith in the Sangha
4. Perfect morality

When one completes the spiritual journey and attains Nibbana by becoming an Arahant, one does not need to depend on faith any longer as it is replaced by wisdom through personal realisation. Hence, one who is fully enlightened and has attained Nibbana i.e. an Arahant, is known as “assaddha”.

2. Energy or effort (viriya)

In the Buddhist literature, effort has also been mentioned as energy, persistence, exertion, diligence, perseverance and vigour. The Buddha considered effort (viriya) to be such an important factor in one’s progress and success in the spiritual journey that it has been mentioned at least nine times while describing the thirty seven requisites of enlightenment.

• Effort as the four types of effort (sammappadana)
• Effort as one of the four bases of mental power (iddhipada)
• Effort as one of the five spiritual faculties (pancha indriya)
• Effort as one of the five spiritual powers (pancha bala)
• Effort as one of the seven factors of enlightenment (satta bojjhanga) and
• Effort as right effort (samma vayama) in the Noble Eight-fold Path

Four types of right effort have been described by the Buddha as requisites of enlightenment:

1. Effort to prevent the development of unwholesome mental states that have not arisen
2. Effort to abandon the unwholesome mental states that have arisen
3. Effort to cultivate the un-arisen wholesome mental states
4. Effort to maintain the wholesome mental states that have arisen

The unwholesome mental states that have not yet arisen include the five mental hindrances of sensual desire (kamacchanda), ill-will (vyapada), sloth and torpor (thina middha), restlessness and remorse (uddacca kukkucca) and sceptical doubt (vicikicca). Effort should be applied to abandon thoughts of sensual desire (kama sankappa), hatred (vyapada sankappa) and cruelty (vihimsa sankappa) that have already arisen.

The wholesome mental states that need to be developed and maintained with right effort are the seven factors of enlightenment (satta bojjhanga):

1. Mindfulness (sati)
2. Investigation of dhammas (dhamma vicaya)
3. Energy or effort (viriya)
4. Rapture or joy (piti)
5. Tranquility (passaddhi)
6. Concentration (samadhi) and
7. Equanimity (upekkha)

The degree of effort that the Buddha applied in search of the Truth on the night of enlightenment while sitting under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, Northeast India is shown by His determination;

“Though only my skin, sinews and bones may remain, and my blood and flesh may dry up and wither away, yet will I never move from this seat until I have attained full enlightenment”

In applying effort (viriya) to develop one’s spiritual development it needs to be maintained from the beginning till the final liberation and depending on the stage of a particular task there are three types of effort:

1. Effort required to begin a particular action (arambha dhatu viriya)
2. Effort required to sustain an action in spite of obstacles (nikkama dhatu viriya)
3. Effort required to continue till the completion of an action (parakkama dhatu viriya)

In order to succeed in one’s spiritual journey and attain enlightenment, one needs to apply the right level of effort. Too much effort or too little effort could both hinder the path to enlightenment. In the Sona sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s numerical discourses), when Venerable Sona was just about to give up the monastic life as he did not succeed in his meditation practice due to the excess effort that he applied, the Buddha approached him to offer appropriate advice. Using the simile of the lute, the musical instrument that Sona had been skilled in playing before becoming a Buddhist monk, the Buddha got him to agree that when the strings of the lute are too tight or too loose it will not produce the right sound. Similarly, the Buddha advised him that in meditation, too much effort will lead to restlessness (uddacca) while too little effort will lead to sloth and torpor (thina middha) both of which are mental hindrances affecting the meditation process. (3)

3. Mindfulness (sati)

Although the Pali word “Sati” has several meanings such as memory, mindfulness, recollection and wakefulness, as a spiritual faculty it is considered as the mindful-awareness to the content of one’s experience as it manifests from moment to moment in the immediate present. Mindful awareness is paying bare attention to whatever happens from moment to moment, whether it is a physical or a mental process, without any reaction or judgment in order to have an insight into their true nature. One is expected to keep full awareness on what is happening right now, not paying attention to the past which is already gone or to the future which is yet to come. Mindfulness has been mentioned several times within the thirty seven requisites of enlightenment;

1. Mindfulness as the four foundations of mindfulness (satipatthana)
2. Mindfulness as one of the five spiritual faculties (pancha indriya)
3. Mindfulness as one of the five spiritual powers (pancha bala)
4. Mindfulness as the first of the seven factors of enlightenment (sati sambojjhanga)
5. Right mindfulness (samma sati) as the seventh factor of the Noble Eight-fold Path (ariya attanghika magga)

Through well developed mindfulness one is able to maintain equanimity towards the sense experiences received through the six sense organs of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and the mind. By not reacting with craving to pleasant sense objects or with aversion to unpleasant sense objects, one is able to exert control over the process in which unwholesome mental roots of greed (raga), aversion (dosa) and delusion (moha) may lead to unskillful mental, verbal or physical actions.

As a spiritual faculty mindfulness (sati) has the key role of acting as the moderator for the other four faculties to ensure that a proper balance is maintained among them. A balance between the faculties of faith (saddha) and wisdom (panna) as well as between effort (viriya) and concentration (samadhi) is essential for the spiritual progress to continue smoothly.

The techniques of developing mindfulness in insight meditation are derived from one of the most important discourses by the Buddha named Satipatthana sutta. “Sati” means mindfulness, and “patthana” means foundation, so Satipatthana means foundations of mindfulness. In the Buddha’s teachings recorded in the Pali language, Satipatthana sutta is the tenth discourse of the middle length discourses (majjhima nikaya). In this sutta, the Buddha has given clear guidelines on how to develop the complete set of four foundations of mindfulness.

The four foundations of mindfulness

1. Contemplating the body in the body (kayanupassana)
2. Contemplating feelings in the feelings (vedananupassana)
3. Contemplating the mind in the mind (cittanupassana)
4. Contemplating mind objects in the mind objects (dhammanupassana)

The Buddha has persistently emphasised the fact that in order to achieve the spiritual outcome as described by the Buddha, the meditator needs to develop the four foundations of mindfulness with diligence (atapi), clear comprehension (sampajanna) and mindfulness (sati) leading to the development of mindfulness as a factor of enlightenment and insight wisdom (panna).

Four factors have been described in the Buddhist literature which can strengthen the development of mindfulness as a factor of enlightenment. (4)

1. Mindfulness with clear comprehension
2. Avoiding association with confused and unmindful persons
3. Association with persons who cultivate mindfulness
4. Strong commitment towards developing mindfulness

In mindfulness with clear comprehension one maintains mindfulness during the performance of all daily activities such as walking, talking, dressing, eating, washing, toileting, sleeping, etc. If one associates with people that lack mindfulness and has no inclination to even consider developing mindfulness it would be just a matter of time before one becomes influenced by them while association with people who are mindful and are inclined to develop mindfulness will be a positive influence.

4. Concentration (samadhi) 

Concentration (samadhi) has been described by Venerable Buddhaghosa in the Path of Purification (visuddhi magga) as “the state, in virtue of which, consciousness and it’s concomitants remain evenly and rightly on a single object un-distracted and unscattered”. It can also be described as calming the mind or wholesome one-pointedness of the mind free from unwholesome states of greed (lobha), aversion (dosa) and delusion (moha). Concentration can be either mundane or supra mundane. When concentration is developed in relation to the three worlds of existence namely, sensual world (kama loka), fine material world (rupa loka) and the formless immaterial world (arupa loka) it is mundane concentration. When it is developed in relation to the supra mundane path of liberation from suffering and all existence it is supra mundane concentration. (5)

Concentration is mentioned at least four times within the thirty seven requisites of enlightenment:

1. Concentration as one of the five spiritual faculties (pancha indriya)
2. Concentration as one of the five spiritual powers (pancha bala)
3. Concentration as the sixth of the seven factors of enlightenment (samadhi sambojjhanga)
4. Right concentration (samma samadhi) as the eighth factor of the Noble Eight-fold path

In concentration meditation the aim is to develop and maintain a state of deep concentration or one-pointedness of mind by focusing one’s attention on a single meditation object. This state will be maintained as long as the attention of the meditator is completely absorbed into that particular object. As the concentration of the mind becomes deeper and deeper, the five mental hindrances of sensual desire (kamacchanda), ill-will (vyapada), sloth and topor (thina middha), restlessness and remorse (uddacca kukkucca) and sceptical doubt (vicikicca) become gradually suppressed. With the establishment of deep concentration and suppression of the five mental hindrances, five qualities or attributes called Jhana factors develop and become strong. The mind could then remain in deep concentration continuously and the meditator can experience tranquility, calmness and bliss. The five Jhana factors are;

1. Initial application (vitakka)
2. Sustained application (vicara)
3. Rapture or joy (piti)
4. Mental bliss or happiness (sukha)
5. One-pointedness with equanimity (ekaggata with upekkha)

During meditation, as the concentration on a meditation object deepens from preliminary concentration through access concentration and fixed concentration, deep absorption states (jhana) arise in the mind during the periods of strong and deep concentration. In the Indriya Vibhanga sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha has described the faculty of concentration as the attainment of the first, second, third and the fourth state of deep absorption (jhana) in concentration meditation. (6)

The main differences among the four Jhana states are the depth of concentration and the number of Jhana factors involved. As the Jhana state progresses, the number of Jhana factors involved become less and less while the concentration becomes calmer and finer compared to the preceding Jhana state. In addition to attaining the states of deep mental absorptions and tranquility, the deep state of concentration and the removal of the mental hindrances could provide the necessary foundation for the development of insight or wisdom into the real nature of physical and mental phenomena.

5. Wisdom (panna)

In Buddhism wisdom does not refer to knowledge regarding mundane issues related to world affairs however deep or extensive it is, but it refers to intuitive and experiential insight into the true characteristics of physical and mental phenomena namely, impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha) and lack of a permanent entity called self (anatta).

According to Buddhist literature wisdom (panna) can occur at three levels:

1. Wisdom gained by listening to others or reading scriptures (sutamaya panna)
2. Wisdom gained by personal intellectual analysis (cintamaya panna)
3. Wisdom gained by direct experience through meditation (bhavanamaya panna)

Wisdom gained by personal experiential insight through meditation into the true characteristics of natural phenomena is the true wisdom that needs to be developed in order to transcend all suffering and attain Nibbana.

Within the thirty seven requisites of enlightenment, the factor of wisdom (panna) appears at least five times:

1. Wisdom as the factor of investigation (vimansa) in the four bases of mental power (iddhipada)
2. Wisdom as one of the five spiritual faculties (pancha indriya)
3. Wisdom as one of the five spiritual powers (pancha bala)
4. Wisdom as investigation of dhammas (dhamma vicaya) in seven factors of enlightenment (satta bojjhanga)
5. Wisdom as right view (samma ditthi) in the Noble Eight-fold Path

In the Indriya vibhanga sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha has described wisdom as the discernment into the four Noble Truths:

1. The Truth of universal suffering (dukkha sacca)
2. The Truth of the cause of suffering (samudaya sacca)
3. The Truth of the cessation of suffering (nirodha sacca)
4. The Truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering (magga sacca).

In addition to the obvious causes of suffering such as birth, old age, disease, death, association with the unpleasant, dissociation from the pleasant, and not receiving what one desires, the Buddha summarised that the five aggregates of clinging (pancha–upadanaskhanda) are suffering. The five aggregates of clinging are form (rupa upadanaskhanda), feeling (vedana upadanaskhanda), perception (sanna upadanaskhanda), mental formation (sankhara upadanaskhanda) and consciousness (vinnana upadanaskhanda) which constitute the psycho-physical complex (nama rupa) that we call a person or a being. They are transitory and are in a constant state of flux with no substantial entity in them, but we cling to them and identify with one or more of them as “me”, “mine” and “my self” thus creating suffering for ourselves.

The Buddha stated that the origin of suffering is craving (tanha) which is of three types;

1. Craving for sense pleasures (kama tanha)
2. Craving for becoming or existence (bhava tanha)
3. Craving for non-becoming or non-existence (vibhava tanha)

Cessation of suffering by overcoming and totally abandoning craving is the state of Nibbana, the sublime state beyond all suffering, a state of complete peace with no possibility of rebirth in any of the thirty one planes of existence.

The path leading to the cessation of suffering is the Noble Eight-fold Path consisting of:

1. Right view (samma ditthi)
2. Right intention (samma sankappa)
3. Right speech (samma vaca)
4. Right action (samma kammanta)
5. Right livelihood (samma ajiva)
6. Right effort (samma vayama)
7. Right mindfulness (samma sati)
8. Right concentration (samma samadhi)

From a practical standpoint the above eight factors are divided into three groups of practice;

1. Morality (sila), consisting of right speech, right action and right livelihood
2. Concentration (samadhi), consisting of right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration
3. Wisdom (panna), consisting of right understanding and right intention

Out of the five spiritual faculties, the faculty of wisdom (panna) occupies a dominant and significant role. In tha Mallaka sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha has stated that the faculty of wisdom is necessary for the other four faculties of faith, effort, mindfulness and concentration to establish themselves as spiritual faculties. (7)

Among the five spiritual faculties, the faculties of faith (saddha) and wisdom (panna) are paired together while effort (viriya) and concentration (samadhi) are paired together in a reciprocal relationship. A balance needs to be found between faith and wisdom as well as between effort and concentration to facilitate spiritual progress. The faculty of mindfulness acts as the moderator to make sure that each pair maintains the correct balance without resorting to extremes which can adversely affect the spiritual development. For example, if faith dominates over wisdom the ability of analysis and investigation will weaken whereas if wisdom dominates over faith then it will lead to doubt and uncertainty. Likewise, if effort or energy dominates over concentration then it will cause restlessness and agitation whereas if concentration dominates over effort then it will cause sloth and torpor (thina middha).

Five spiritual powers (pancha bala)

When the five spiritual faculties are developed, refined and well founded they become spiritual powers which are firm, strong and powerful enough to oppose and control the factors that oppose the five spiritual faculties as follows.

1. Faith (saddha) controls doubt
2. Effort (viriya) controls laziness
3. Mindfulness (sati) controls heedlessness
4. Concentration (samadhi) controls distraction and
5. Wisdom (panna) controls ignorance

When faith becomes a power it manifests as the four immeasurables (brahma vihara) namely loving kindness (metta), compassion (karuna), sympathetic joy (muditha) and equanimity (upekkha). When effort and concentration become powers they lead to deep states of concentration (jhana) and when wisdom becomes a power it leads to the insight into the three universal characteristics of impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and not self (anatta). Mindfulness becomes a power when one is able to develop mindfulness by contemplating on the body, feelings, mind and the mind objects. (8)

In the Saththanisansa sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha has stated that those who successfully cultivate the five spiritual faculties will eventually attain one of seven spiritual outcomes.

1. Will attain Arahanthood during this life time by eradicating all the mental defilements
2. If not, will attain Arahanthood at the time of death
3. If not, will eradicate the five lower fetters of self-identity view (sakkaya ditthi), sceptical doubt (vicikicca), attachment to mere rites and rituals (silabbata paramasa), sensual desire (kama raga) and Ill-will (patigha) to be born as a Non-Returner who, having born in one of the Pure Abodes attains full enlightenment during the first half of the life time there (antara-parinibbayi)
4. If not, will be born as a Non-Returner who, having been born in one of the Pure Abodes attains full enlightenment during the second half of life time there or at the time of death (upahacca-parinibbayi)
5. If not, will be born as a Non-Returner who, having born in one of the Pure Abodes attains full enlightenment with exertion (sasankhara-parinibbayi)
6. If not, will be born as a Non-Returner who, having born in one of the Pure Abodes attains full enlightenment without exertion (asankhara-parinibbayi)
7. If not, will be born as a Non-Returner who, having been born in one of the Pure Abodes gradually moves to the highest Pure Abode of peerless devas (akanittha) and attains full enlightenment there (uddhamsota-akanittha-gami) (9)

In the Pathama Uppada sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, The Buddha has stated that the five spiritual faculties arise and come into prominence only when a Samma Sambuddha appears in the world and not at any other time. (10) In the Apana sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, venerable Sariputta in answering a question from the Buddha has described how progression is made in the five spiritual faculties; faith (saddha) leading to effort (viriya), effort leading to mindfulness (sati), mindfulness leading to concentration (samadhi) and concentration leading to wisdom (panna). (11)

References

1. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Jagara sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
2. Soma Thera, 1976, Faith in the Buddha’s Teachings and Refuge in the Triple Gem, The Wheel Publication 262, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri lanka.
3. Bhikkhu Bodhi 2012, Sona sutta, The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha; Anguttara Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
4. Soma Thera 2003, The Way of Mindfulness, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
5. The Path of Purification (visuddhi magga), by Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa, translated by Bhikkhu Nanamoli 1956.
6. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Indriya Vibhanga Sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
7. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Mallaka sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
8. Spritual faculties, Ayya Khema, www.vipassana.co.uk/meditation.khema.hereandnow/
9. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Saththanisansa sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
10. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Pathama Uppada sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
11. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Apana sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.

End.

Seven Factors of Enlightenment (satta bojjhanga) in Theravada Buddhism

Seven Factors of Enlightenment (satta bojjhanga) 

in Theravada Buddhism

 By Dr. Ari Ubeysekara

Introduction

The final spiritual goal of the Buddhist practitioners within Theravada Buddhism is to attain enlightenment or liberation from all suffering and the cycle of birth and death (samsara). This is the state of Nibbana, which has been described as a supra-mundane state of the highest bliss and eternal happiness devoid of the suffering of birth, disease, old age, death, grief, lamentation and despair.

In many of His discourses the Buddha has stated that, in order to attain final liberation one has to cultivate 37 qualities in one’s mind. These 37 qualities or requisites are known as “Bodhipakkhiya dhamma” in the Pali language, “bodhi” meaning awakening or enlightenment, “pakkhiya” meaning related and “dhamma” meaning requisites or qualities which are described in seven groups.

The thirty seven requisites of enlightenment

• Four foundations of mindfulness (satipatthana)
• Four types of right effort (sammappadana)
• Four bases of mental power (iddhipada)
• Five spiritual faculties (pancha indriya)
• Five spiritual powers (pancha bala)
• Seven factors of enlightenment (satta bojjhanga)
• The Noble Eight-fold Path (ariya atthangika magga)

Seven factors of enlightenment (satta bojjhanga)

The Pali term “Satta bojjhanga” consisting of “satta” meaning seven, “bodhi”, meaning enlightenment and “anga” meaning causative factors refer to the following seven factors or necessary conditions which, when cultivated by a disciple lead to awakening or enlightenment;

• Mindfulness (sati)
• Investigation of dhammas (dhamma vicaya)
• Energy or effort (viriya)
• Rapture or joy (piti)
• Tranquility (passaddhi)
• Concentration (samadhi)
• Equanimity (upekkha)

By developing the seven factors of enlightenment and entering the supra-mundane path of awakening, one becomes a noble person (ariya) from being an ordinary worldling (puthujjana) before. According to the Buddhist scriptures, the seven factors of enlightenment are known in the world only when a Samma Sambuddha has appeared and they are disclosed to the world only by a Sam Sambuddha. Hence, they are wholesome factors that are unique to the Buddha’s teaching. When these seven factors are fully cultivated and mature, the meditator attains the path consciousness (magga nana) with the realization of the four Noble Truths. This is the experience of the state of Nibbana with the total elimination of mental defilements and thus becoming a noble person (ariya). So, this set of seven factors of enlightenment is also described as qualities of a noble person or an enlightened person.

Beginning with the first factor of mindfulness (sati) they tend to flow in a progression towards the last factor of equanimity (upekkha) with each factor supporting the development of the subsequent factors. During the spiritual journey of a Buddhist disciple these seven factors can be present in varying stages of maturity. When they are fully developed and mature during insight meditation (vipassana bhavana), one attains the insight knowledge of the supra-mundane path (lokuttara-magga-nana) which is also known as “Sambodhi”; full awakening to the four Noble Truths. Hence, in the Buddhist literature the seven factors of enlightenment are also known as “Satta sam-bojjhanga”.

Appropriate or wise attention (yoniso manasikara) plays a crucial role in the establishment and development of the seven factors of enlightenment. The Buddha has stated that no other internal factor is more important than wise attention in developing the seven factors of enlightenment. Wise attention can be described as the thinking in terms of causal relationships such as the consequences of one’s thoughts and actions, or exploration of the conditioned nature of phenomena which will lead to the development of insight or wisdom. According to the Ahara Sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s connected discourses), when there is unwise attention (ayoniso manasikara), un-arisen factors of enlightenment do not arise and those that have arisen will not reach the culmination of their development. When there is wise attention (yoniso manasikara), un-arisen factors of enlightenment will arise and those that have arisen will reach the culmination of their development (1).

The Buddha has often stated the significance of association with a spiritual friend (kalyana mitta sevana), in one’s spiritual development. For example, when on a certain occasion, Venerable Ananda, the Buddha’s chief attendant, stated to the Buddha that he thought association with a spiritual friend is half of the Buddha’s dispensation, the Buddha corrected him by stating that the Buddha’s dispensation totally depends on association with a spiritual friend.  The Buddha has also stated in the Samyutta Nikaya, that there is no other external factor more significant and helpful in the development of the seven factors of enlightenment than association with spiritual friends. 

1. Mindfulness (sati)

Although the Pali word “Sati” has several meanings such as memory, mindfulness, recollection and wakefulness, here, it is considered as the mindful-awareness to the content of one’s experience as it manifests from moment to moment in the immediate present. Mindful awareness is paying bare attention to whatever happens from moment to moment, whether it is a physical or a mental process, without any reaction or judgment in order to have an insight into their true nature. One is expected to keep full awareness on what is happening right now, not paying attention to the past which is already gone or to the future which is yet to come. Mindfulness has been mentioned several times within the 37 requisites of enlightenment;

1. Mindfulness as the four foundations of mindfulness (satipatthana)
2. Mindfulness as the 7^th factor of the Noble Eight-fold Path (ariya attanghika magga)
3. Mindfulness as one of the five spiritual faculties (pancha indriya)
4. Mindfulness as one of the five spiritual powers (pancha bala)

Non-judgmental awareness from moment to moment needs to be maintained continuously at each moment of one’s waking life for it to become a factor of enlightenment. As a factor of enlightenment, mindfulness has a central role not only because it is an essential factor for the development of the other six factors but because it’s continual presence is also essential as a balancing factor for the other six factors to mature and become factors of enlightenment.

Through well developed mindfulness one is able to maintain equanimity towards the sense experiences received through the six sense organs of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and the mind. As such, by not reacting with craving to pleasant sense objects or with aversion to unpleasant sense objects, one is able to exert control over the process in which unwholesome mental roots of greed (raga), aversion (dosa) and delusion (moha) may lead to unskillful mental, verbal or physical actions.

The technique of developing mindfulness in insight meditation is derived from one of the most important discourses by the Buddha named Satipatthana sutta. “Sati” means mindfulness, and “patthana” means foundation, so Satipatthana means foundations of mindfulness. In the Buddha’s teachings recorded in the Pali language, Satipatthana sutta appears as the 10^th discourse of the middle length discourses (majjhima nikaya).

In this sutta, the Buddha has given clear guidelines on how to develop the complete set of four foundations of mindfulness.

The four foundations of mindfulness

1. Contemplating the body in the body (kayanupassana)
2. Contemplating feelings in the feelings (vedananupassana)
3. Contemplating  mind in the mind (cittanupassana)
4. Contemplating mind objects in mind objects (dhammanupassana) (2)

The Buddha has persistently emphasised the fact that in order to achieve spiritual outcome as described by the Buddha, the meditator needs to develop the four foundations of mindfulness with diligence (atapi), clear comprehension (sampajanna) and mindfulness (sati) leading to the development of mindfulness as a factor of enlightenment and insight wisdom (panna).

In the Anapanasati sutta, the 118^th discourse of the Buddha’s middle length discourses (majjhima nikaya), the Buddha has given very clear instructions on establishing mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati) followed by sixteen contemplations divided into four sets or tetrads. The four tetrads of contemplations correspond to the four foundations of mindfulness described in the Satipatthana sutta namely, contemplation of the body (kayanupassana), contemplation of the feelings or sensations (vedananupassana), contemplation of the mind or consciousness (cittanupassana) and contemplation of the mind objects (dhammanupassana). The Buddha has assured that by the practice of the sixteen contemplations successfully, mindfulness (sati) factor of enlightenment will develop followed by the rest of the factors leading to insight knowledge and full liberation (3).

Four factors have been described in the Buddhist literature which can strengthen the development of mindfulness as a factor of enlightenment.

1. Mindfulness with clear comprehension (sati sampajanna)
2. Avoiding association with confused and unmindful persons
3. Association with persons who cultivate mindfulness
4. Strong commitment towards developing mindfulness

In mindfulness with clear comprehension one maintains mindfulness during the performance of all daily activities such as walking, talking, dressing, eating, washing, toileting, sleeping etc. If one associates with people who lack mindfulness and has no inclination to even consider developing mindfulness it would be just a matter of time before one become influenced by them while association with people who are mindful and are inclined to develop mindfulness will be a positive influence (4).

2. Investigation of dhammas (dhamma vicaya)

The second factor of dhamma vicaya, “dhamma” meaning mental and physical phenomena and “vicaya” meaning to analyse, investigate or scrutinize, refers to the quality of mind that critically discriminates and investigates into the true nature of mental and physical phenomena (nama-rupa). This investigation is not an intellectual or a thinking process but an analytical and intuitive process in the context of meditation, scrutinizing and penetrating into the reality of all existing phenomena as they happen from moment to moment in one’s experiential world.

Investigation of dhammas (dhamma vicaya) is a designation for wisdom and has been described in different names elsewhere in the Buddha’s teaching such as;

1. Right view (samma ditthi) as the first factor of the Noble Eight-fold Path
2. Investigation or discrimination (vimansa) as one of the four bases of mental power (iddhipada)
3. Wisdom (panna) as one of the five spiritual faculties (pancha indriya) and
4. Wisdom (panna) as one of the five spiritual powers (pancha bala)

Through investigation, one gains an analytical knowledge about the true nature of the mental and physical phenomena consisting of the three universal characteristics of impermanence (anicca), unsatisfactoriness (dukkha) and absence of a self (anatta). Well developed mindfulness (sati) helps the process of critical investigation into the phenomena as they arise and cease leading to the insight into the difference between mind (nama) and matter (rupa) and the conditioned nature of the arising and ceasing of mental and physical phenomena (paticca samuppada). Hence, this factor of enlightenment is also known as investigation of phenomena. While mindfulness is rather a passive process, investigation of dhammas is an active process analyzing, scrutinizing and dissecting mental and physical phenomena to get an understanding of the reality of their true nature.

Sometimes investigation of dhammas or phenomena has also been referred to as critical investigation of the Buddha’s teaching (Dhamma) itself where one critically and analytically examines significant aspects of the teaching such as the four Noble Truths, three universal characteristics and Dependent Origination. However, both interpretations amount to the same process as the function of both is to critically analyse the mental and physical phenomena from moment to moment to gain an insight into their true nature.

The factor of investigation of the dhammas can be developed by paying wise attention to qualities such as wholesome/unwholesome, blamable/blameless, inferior/superior and evil/good. For example, one could investigate unwholesome qualities which will bring suffering such as craving, aversion, anxiety, and fear as they arise in our mind and also wholesome qualities such as loving kindness, compassion and generosity.

In the Buddhist literature seven more factors have been described which can facilitate the development of the factor of investigation of dhammas (dhamma vicaya):

1. Inquiring about various aspects of the Buddha’s teaching and practice
2. Cleanliness of one’s physical body and the surroundings
3. A proper balance among the five spiritual faculties of faith (saddha), effort (viriya), mindfulness (sati), concentration (samadhi) and wisdom (panna). A proper balance needs to maintained between faith and wisdom as well as between effort and concentration, mindfulness acting as the moderator
4. Association with wise persons. A wise person has been described as someone who, through insight meditation has gained at least the insight into the arising and ceasing of mental and physical phenomena
5. Avoiding association with unwise persons
6. Reflection on hard to perceive processes such as the five aggregates of clinging, the base elements, six sense bases etc.
7. Having a mental state inclined towards the development of investigation of dhammas in all the postures; standing, sitting, walking and lying down

The development of the factor of investigation of dhammas (dhamma vicaya) is facilitated by the preceding factor of mindfulness (sati) and leads to the establishment of the subsequent factors of effort (viriya), rapture (piti), tranquility (passaddhi), concentration (samadhi) and equanimity (upekkha).

3. Energy or effort (viriya)

Effort is an essential factor that is required for the cultivation and maturation of the seven factors of enlightenment. Steady, energetic and consistent effort is required to abandon harmful mental qualities and to facilitate the arising and nurturing of mental qualities which are beneficial to the spiritual development. In the Buddhist literature the significance of effort is mentioned in the context of several other areas with in the thirty seven requisites of enlightenment.

1. Effort as four right efforts (cattaro sammappadhana)
2. Effort as one of the four bases of mental power (viriya iddhipada)
3. Effort as one of the five spiritual faculties (pancha indriya)
4. Effort as one of the five spiritual powers (pancha bala)
5. Right effort (samma vayama) as the sixth factor of the Noble Eight-fold path

The degree of effort that the Buddha applied in search of the Truth on the night of enlightenment while sitting under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, Northeast India is shown by His determination;

“Though only my skin, sinews and bone may remain, and my blood and flesh may dry up and wither away, yet will I never move from this seat until I have attained full enlightenment”

In applying effort (viriya) to develop one’s spiritual development it needs to be maintained from the beginning till the final liberation and depending on the stage of a particular task there are three types of effort:

1. Effort required to begin a particular action (arambha dhatu viriya)
2. Effort required to sustain an action in spite of obstacles (nikkama dhatu viriya)
3. Effort required to continue till the completion of an action (parakkama dhatu viriya)

Within the thirty seven requisites of enlightenment there are four types of right effort:

1. To prevent the development of unwholesome mental states that have not arisen
2. To abandon the unwholesome mental states that have arisen
3. To cultivate the un-arisen wholesome mental states
4. To maintain the wholesome mental states that have arisen

The unwholesome mental sates that have not yet arisen are the five mental hindrances of sensual desire (kamacchanda), ill-will (vyapada), sloth and topor (thina middha), restlessness and remorse (uddacca kukkucca) and sceptical doubt (vicikicca). Effort should also be applied to abandon thoughts of sensual desire (kama sankappa), hatred (vyapada sankappa) and cruelty (vihimsa sankappa) that have already arisen. The wholesome mental states that need to be developed and maintained with right effort are the seven factors of enlightenment (satta bojjhanga).

4. Rapture or joy (piti)

Joy, pleasure or happiness can be either sensual joy or non-sensual joy. Sensual (samisa) joy is the joy created by the sensual objects received through the five sense doors of the eye, ear, nose, tongue and the body. On the other hand, rapture or non-sensual (niramisa) joy, also known as spiritual happiness and pleasurable interest in a meditation object, is the joy or bliss that one feels in the mind and the body associated with well developed concentration and the peace of the mind through meditative experiences. It creates a feeling of contentment and refreshment for the mind and the body.

Compared to calmness (passaddhi), the next factor of enlightenment to be discussed, rapture has a rather exciting and energizing quality which would naturally stimulate the meditator to continue and persist with meditation. Rapture is not felt as a physical sensation. It appears when the mind is free from the five mental hindrances and is present as a jhanic factor in the first two states of deep absorption (jhana).

Rapture is one of the five qualities or attributes called Jhanic factors which develop when the mind is in a state of deep concentration;

1. Initial application (vitakka)
2. Sustained application (vicara)
3. Rapture or joy (piti)
4. Mental bliss or happiness (sukha)
5. One-pointedness with equanimity (ekaggata with upekkha)

Five different types of rapture which can refresh the body and the mind have been described by Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa in the Path of Purification (visuddhimagga);

1. Minor rapture (khuddaka piti)
2. Momentary rapture (khanika piti)
3. Showering rapture (okkantika piti)
4. Uplifting rapture (ubbega piti)
5. Pervading rapture (pharana piti)

Minor rapture generally appears first and can make the hair on the body to rise while in momentary rapture, which is of very short duration, there are flashes of rapture at different moments which appears and disappears like flashes of lightening. Showering rapture invades the body again and again similar to the waves on the sea shore and in uplifting rapture the body is likely to be lifted off from the ground. Pervading rapture pervades and fills the whole body with joy and is described as the jhanic factor of rapture (5).

The appearance of rapture (piti) is an indication that the mind has reached a deep state of concentration with the suppression of the five mental hindrances, but the meditator should not get attached to it and continue with the primary meditation object as otherwise it will hinder further mental development.

5. Tranquility (passaddhi)

The fifth factor of calm, serenity, quietness or tranquility (passaddhi) naturally follows joy or rapture (piti) and leads on to concentration (samadhi). It is of two types;

1. Tranquility of the mental qualities (kaya passaddhi)
2. Tranquility of the mind or consciousness (citta passaddhi)

Kaya passaddhhi is not quietening of the physical body, but of the mental factors (cetasika) such as feeling (vedana), perception (sanna) and the mental formations (sankhara). When tranquility develops the opposite factors of restlessness and remorse (uddaccha kukkuccha) are controlled. For tranquility to develop, the previous four factors of mindfulness, investigation, effort and rapture need to have been well developed. When the mind is in such a state of peace and quietness there is the danger that the meditator will misinterpret it as a stage of liberation and discontinue with further development of the mind. Tranquility has been compared to the happy and relaxing experience provided by the cooling shade of a tree to someone who is affected by the severe heat of the sun. It has a controlling effect on the mental hindrances of restlessness (uddacca) and remorse (kukkucca) which can exert a negative influence on the peaceful nature of the mind (citta) and the mental factors (cetasika).

6. Concentration (samadhi)

Concentration (samadhi) has been described as “the state, in virtue of which, consciousness and it’s concomitants remain evenly and rightly on a single object un-distracted and un-scattered”. It is an essential factor in the spiritual journey within Theravada Buddhism. Cultivation and the maturity of the first five factors of mindfulness, investigation, effort, rapture and tranquility is essential for the proper development of concentration as a factor of enlightenment. Concentration is mentioned in several other groups within the thirty seven requisites of enlightenment;

1. Concentration as one of the five spiritual faculties (samadhindriya)
2. Concentration as one of the five spiritual powers (samadhibala)
3. Right concentration in the Noble Eight-fold Path (samma samadhi)

In concentration meditation a state of deep concentration or one-pointedness of mind is cultivated by focusing one’s attention on one of the forty meditation objects. This state will be maintained as long as the attention of the meditator is completely absorbed into that particular object. When the meditator keeps concentrating on the chosen meditation object on a continuous basis and as the concentration gradually deepens, two stages of concentration (samadhi) can be attained;

1. Access concentration (upachara samadhi)
2. Fixed concentration (appana samadhi)

In access concentration, also called neighbourhood concentration, the attention on the meditation object becomes more sustained and powerful fixing the mind one-pointedly along with the suppression of the five mental hindrances.

In fixed concentration, in addition to fixing the mind on the meditation object one-pointedly and suppression of the five mental hindrances, the five Jhanic factors are also strong and well developed. The mind can now remain in deep concentration continuously and the meditator can experience tranquility, calmness and bliss.

As the concentration of the mind becomes deeper and deeper, different stages of calmness and joy called Jhana or deep mental absorptions arise which are free from the five mental hindrances. In addition to attaining the states of deep mental absorptions and tranquility, the deep state of concentration and the removal of the mental hindrances can equip the mediator to properly investigate and attain insight or wisdom into the real nature of mental and physical phenomena (nama rupa); impermanence (anicca), unsatisfactoriness (dukkha) and not self (anatta).

Some meditators may prefer to develop the concentration up to the level of fixed concentration (appana samadhi) or even up to the level of deep absorption states (jhana) before going onto practise insight meditation (vipassana bhavana). However, it is said that concentration up to the level of access concentration (upacara samadhi) with the suppression of the five mental hindrances is enough for one to practise insight meditation. For the meditators who prefer to practise insight meditation right from the beginning of the practice without practising concentration meditation first, what is known as momentary concentration (khanika samadhi) would be enough to proceed with insight meditation. While paying attention with mindfulness to mental and physical phenomena as they arise and cease, but not getting absorbed into them as done in concentration meditation, moment to moment concentration develops which is equivalent to access concentration (upacara samadhi) with the suppression of the five mental hindrances.

Out of the five spiritual faculties of faith or conviction (saddha), effort (viriya), mindfulness (sati), concentration (samadhi) and wisdom (panna), there has to be a proper balance between the factors of effort and concentration, for the concentration to develop and mature as a factor of enlightenment. If effort dominates over concentration it will cause restlessness and agitation whereas when concentration dominates over effort it will cause sloth and torpor.

7. Equanimity (upekkha)

Equanimity is the mental quality of being non-reactive and neutral with a perfectly balanced mind, in the face of different experiences. It’s development as a factor of enlightenment is facilitated by the proper development of the preceding six factors of enlightenment. Equanimity is the last of the four immeasurables (brahma vihara), the others being loving kindness (metta), compassion (karuna) and sympathetic joy (muditha). These four immeasurables are included among the forty meditation objects used in concentration meditation. Equanimity is also one of the factors associated with deep absorption stages (jhana) in concentration meditation.

It should be noted that equanimity as a factor of enlightenment is not considered as a neutral feeling but as a mental attitude of balance and impartiality synonymous with the neutrality of the mind (tatramajjhattata), one of the nineteen universal beautiful mental factors (sobhanasadharana-cetasika) mentioned in the Buddha’s higher teaching (abhidhamma) (6).

When equanimity has become a factor of enlightenment one is able to deal with one’s experiences with people and objects with an impartial attitude with no attachment or detachment. Hence, a Buddha’s disciple who has attained the final noble stage of the spiritual development known as Arahant with well developed equanimity as a factor of enlightenment will face the following worldly experiences with total equanimity;

• Gain (labha) and loss (alabha)
• Disrepute (ayasa) and fame (yasa)
• Blame (ninda) and praise (pasamsa)
• Pleasure (sukha) and pain (dukkha)

For equanimity to develop as a factor of enlightenment there has to be a proper balance among the five spiritual faculties (pancha indriya). Of the five spiritual faculties, the faculties of faith (saddha) and wisdom (panna) are paired together while effort (viriya) and concentration (samadhi) are paired together in a reciprocal relationship. There has to be a balance between faith and wisdom as well as between effort and concentration to facilitate spiritual progress. The faculty of mindfulness (sati) which is the basic condition for the other four factors, acts as the moderator to make sure that each pair maintains the correct balance between them without resorting to either extreme.

In the Aggi Sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s connected discourses) the Buddha has advised the monks that when the mind is sluggish due to the mental hindrance of sloth and torpor (thina middha), it is the wrong time to practise the factors of concentration, tranquility and equanimity, but is the right time to practise effort, investigation and rapture. Similarly, when the mind is restless due to the mental hindrance of restlessness and remorse (uddacca kukkucca), it is the wrong time to practise effort, investigation and rapture, but is the right time to practise concentration, tranquility and equanimity (7).

In the discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness (satipatthana sutta) of the Majjhima Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s middle length discourses), the Buddha has described contemplation of the seven factors of enlightenment as a means of developing mindfulness of mind objects (dhammas). For example, in contemplating the factor of mindfulness as just a mental object, the mediator is aware;

1. When the mindfulness factor has arisen
2. When the mindfulness factor has not arisen
3. When the un-arisen mindfulness factor arises, and
4. When the arisen mindfulness factor reaches its completion

In a similar way the meditator contemplates with regard to the other six factors of enlightenment. The meditator thus contemplates the seven factors of enlightenment as just phenomena with no “I”, “Self” or “Soul” in him-self and others, detached and without clinging to anything (8).

Within the group of the seven factors of enlightenment there are two sub groups each consisting of three of the seven factors. One sub group is the arousing or the energising group consisting of the three factors of effort (viriya), investigation (dhamma vicaya) and rapture (piti), while the other sub group known as the calming or the passive group consists of concentration (samadhi), tranquility (passaddhi) and equanimity (upekkha). Mindfulness (sati) acts as the moderating and the balancing factor to make sure that the other six factors develop and mature in a correct balance.

In the Sila sutta of the Bhojjanga samyutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha has described seven benefits of cultivating the seven factors of enlightenment (9).

1. One becomes an Arahant early in this life itself.
2. If not, one becomes an Arahant at the time of death.
3. If one does not become an Arahant in this life, having eradicated the first five fetters of self. identity view (sakkaya ditthi), sceptical doubt (vicikicca), attachment to mere rites and rituals (silabbata paramasa), sensual desire (kama raga) and ill-will (patigha) and become a Non-Returner, one will be reborn in one of the five Brahma worlds called Pure Abodes (suddhavasa) and become an Arahant during the first half of the life span there (antara parinibbayi).
4. Having been born in a Pure Abode as a Non-returner, one will become an Arahant during the second half the life span there (upahacca parinibbayi).
5. Having been born in a Pure Abode as a Non-Returner, one will become an Arahant with effort (sasankhara parinibbayi).
6. Having been born in a Pure Abode as a Non-Returner, one will become an Arahant with no effort (asankhara parinibbayi).
7. Having been born in a Pure Abode as a Non-Returner, one will move upwards in the Pure Abodes till the Akanittha Pure Abode and become an Arahant there (uddhamsota akanittha-gami).

In the Anapanasati sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya, the Buddha has stated that when the sixteen contemplations divided into the four tetrads are practised and mindfulness of breathing is cultivated regularly it brings the four foundations of mindfulness namely; mindfulness of the body (kayanupassana), mindfulness of feelings (vedanaupassana), mindfulness of the mind (cittanupassana) and mindfulness of mind objects (dhammanupassana) to perfection. In the same sutta the Buddha goes on to state that when a meditator cultivates and regularly practises the four foundations of mindfulness it will lead to the development of the seven factors of enlightenment (satta bojjhanga) to perfection followed by the perfection of true knowledge (vijja) and liberation (vimutti) (10).

References

1. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Ahara sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
2. Soma Thera 2003, The Way of Mindfulness, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy,Sri Lanka.
3. Ledi Sayadaw Mahathera 1999, Manual of Mindfulness of Breathing, Anapana Dipani, Wheel Publication No: 431/432, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
4. Soma Thera 2003, The Way of Mindfulness, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy,Sri Lanka.
5. The Path of Purification (visuddhi magga), by Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa, translated by Bhikkhu Nanamoli 1956.
6. Bhikkhu Bodhi, 1993, A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
7. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Aggi sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
8. Soma Thera 2003, The Way of Mindfulness, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
9. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Sila sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
10. Ledi Sayadaw Mahathera 1999, Manual of Mindfulness of Breathing, Anapana Dipani, Wheel Publication No: 431/432, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.

End.

The Noble Eightfold Path in Theravada Buddhism

The Noble Eight-fold Path in Theravada Buddhism

By Dr Ari Ubeysekara

Introduction

Gautama Buddha, also known as the ‘Enlightened One’ or ‘Awakened One’, lived in Northern India during the 6^th and 5^th century BC. Having left the life of a royal prince at the age of 29 to become a homeless ascetic, and with the sole intention of searching for the way out of human suffering, ascetic Gautama attained full enlightenment on the full moon day of the month of May at the age of 35. Enlightenment was attained through the realization of the four Noble Truths by His own effort without the help of a teacher. Having attained full enlightenment, and through compassion for other beings, the Buddha decided to teach the path of liberation from suffering that he had discovered so that others could also travel the same path and be liberated from suffering by attaining the state of Nibbana. The Buddha first wanted to teach his two previous teachers, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, but they had already passed away. The Buddha then decided to teach the five ascetic companions named Kondanna, Vappa, Bhaddiya, Mahanama and Assaji, who had supported him during the previous six years of his search for the path to liberation.

Gautama Buddha walked from Bodh Gaya, where He had attained enlightenment, to the deer park at Isipathana (now called Sarnath) near Varanasi in India where the five ascetics were living at that time. There, the Buddha delivered His very first sermon called “dhammacakkappavattana sutta” meaning “turning the Wheel of the Truth.” During this sermon, the Buddha expounded on the four Noble Truths (chathur ariya sacca) and the Noble Eight-fold Path (ariya atthangika magga), also known as the Middle Way (majjhima patipada).

This article gives a brief insight in to the Noble Eight-fold Path, or Middle Way, which the Buddha discovered by Himself through His own personal experience following the failure of both extreme indulgence in sensual pleasures and extreme self-mortification to reveal to Him the path out of human suffering. The Buddha described self-indulgence in sensual pleasures as “low, common, unprofitable, and the way of the ordinary people” and self-mortification as “painful, unworthy and un-profitable” (1)

The four Noble Truths

1. Truth of suffering (dukkha sacca)
2. Truth of the origin of suffering (samudaya sacca)
3. Truth of the cessation of suffering (nirodha sacca)
4. Truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering (magga sacca) (2)

The Four Noble Truths embody the essence of Buddhist doctrine and Buddhist practice leading to the end of suffering, as the Buddha declared over 2500 years ago:

“I teach suffering, its origin, cessation and path. That is all I teach” (3)

The four Noble Truths discovered by Gautama Buddha are neither dogmas nor revelations that should be believed through blind faith. They are realities of life that need to be comprehended and realized through personal experience in order to attain enlightenment and escape from the cycle of birth and death (samsara).

The first Noble Truth is the fact that all forms of existence are subject to unavoidable and inevitable suffering, both physical and mental, mainly due to the following:

1. Birth
2. Ageing
3. Illness
4. Death
5. Sorrow, lamentation, grief, pain, and despair
6. Association with what one dislikes
7. Separation from what one likes
8. Not getting what one desires
9. Concisely, the five aggregates of clinging are suffering.

The five aggregates of clinging are material form (rupa), feeling (vedana), perception (sanna), mental formation (sankhara) and consciousness (vinnana) which, according to the Buddha, are the constituent parts of the Psycho-physical unit (nama-rupa) that is known as an individual, a person or a personality.

The second Noble Truth is the origin of suffering. The Buddha showed that the origin of suffering is craving (tanha). Craving includes not only the desire to seek happy and pleasant experiences and avoid unhappy and unpleasant experiences but also attachment to ideas, beliefs, theories and opinions. Gautama Buddha, in his first sermon, described three types of craving:

1. Craving for sense pleasures (kama tanha)
2. Craving for becoming or existence (bhava tanha)
3. Craving for non-becoming or non-existence (vibhava tanha)

The third Noble Truth of the cessation of suffering is the attainment of Nibbana by totally abandoning and eliminating craving. Nibbana is the sublime state beyond all suffering, a state of complete peace, calmness and happiness and the end of the cycle of birth and death (samsara).

The fourth Noble Truth is the path leading to the end of suffering. This is the Noble Eight-fold Path (ariya atthangika magga). The Dhamma Wheel, often depicted as a symbol of Buddhism, represents the Noble Eight-fold Path with its eight spokes representing the eight aspects of the path. The Noble Eight-fold Path provides practical steps to be followed in order to attain enlightenment (Nibbana) and it consists of eight interrelated factors.

The eight factors of the Noble Eight-fold Path

1. Right view (samma-ditthi)
2. Right intention (samma-sankappa)
3. Right speech (samma-vaca)
4. Right action (samma-kammanta)
5. Right livelihood (samma-ajiva)
6. Right effort (samma-vayama)
7. Right mindfulness (samma-sati)
8. Right concentration (samma-samadhi) (4)

When one understands and cultivates the eight factors of the Noble Eight-fold Path successfully and attains Nibbana (arhathood), two more factors of ‘right knowledge’ and ‘right liberation’ are added making it a tenfold set (dasa sammatta). Right knowledge is the review knowledge (paccavekkhana nana) that one has destroyed all the mental defilements while right liberation is one’s experience of deliverance from defilements. Thus, the set of ten factors are:

1. Right view (samma ditthi)
2. Right intention (samma sankappa)
3. Right speech (samma vaca)
4. Right action (samma kammanta)
5. Right livelihood (samma ajiva)
6. Right effort (samma vayama)
7. Right mindfulness (samma sati)
8. Right concentration (samma samadhi)
9. Right knowledge (samma nana)
10. Right liberation (samma vimutti) (5)

In the Maha-parinibbana sutta of the Digha Nikaya (the collection of Buddha’s long discourses), when addressing Subhadda, the last disciple the Buddha personally ordained as a Buddhist monk, the Buddha made the following statement in reference to the Noble Eight-fold Path:

“But, wherever Subhadda, the Noble Eight-fold Path is found in a religion and discipline, there a true ascetic (Stream Enterer, sotapanna) is found, there a second true ascetic (Once Returner, sakadagami) is found, there a third true ascetic (Non Returner, anagami) is found, there a fourth true ascetic (arahat), is found” (6)

From a practical standpoint, the above eight factors are divided into three groups of practice:

1. Morality (sila) consisting of right speech, right action and right livelihood
2. Concentration (samadhi)consisting of right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration
3. Wisdom (panna), consisting of right view and right intention (7)

Although the eight factors of the Noble Eight-fold Path will not necessarily develop in the sequence stated above, the three practical stages of morality, concentration and wisdom may enhance the development of wisdom in that order – i.e. right moral discipline will lead to right concentration and right concentration will lead to right wisdom.

Among the eight factors of the Noble Eight-fold Path, the group of wisdom (panna), consisting of right view and right intention, is mentioned first as some degree of wisdom is necessary to begin the process of the Eight-fold Path. Right View will become a fully developed wisdom only at the end of the Noble Eight-fold Path.

The Noble Eight-fold Path has been described as being of two kinds, namely:

1. Mundane Noble Eight-fold Path
2. Supra mundane Noble Eight-fold Path

The mundane path develops when one initially begins to purify the moral discipline, develop concentration and gain some degree of insight but it will not lead to Nibbana as such. However, with the successful development of the Right Understanding, it will lead to the supra mundane path that will lead one to full enlightenment (8).

Right view (samma-ditthi)

Right view, or right understanding, is the correct understanding of the reality of physical and mental phenomena that removes the basic unwholesome factor of ignorance. Right View has been placed at the top of the Noble Eight-fold Path not only because it is essential to have a certain degree of correct understanding before one enters the path of liberation but also because the right understanding needs to be continually present in order to proceed with the other seven factors of the path through moral discipline (sila), concentration (samadhi) and wisdom (panna).

Right view can be one of two types:

1. Mundane right view
2. Supra mundane right view

Mundane Right View is having the correct understanding of the mechanism of volitional actions (kamma) – i.e. wholesome volitional physical, verbal or mental actions will lead to good results while unwholesome volitional actions will lead to bad results. This view is based on Buddha’s statement in the Cula-Kamma Vibhanga Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya (the collection of Buddha’s middle length discourses) that:

“Beings are the owners of their actions, the heirs of their actions; born of their actions, related through their actions, and have their actions as their arbitrator. Action is what differentiates beings in terms of baseness and excellence” (9)

Wholesome volitional actions are based on wholesome mental factors of non-greed (alobha), non-aversion (adosa) and non-delusion (amoha) while unwholesome volitional actions are based on unwholesome mental factors of greed (lobha), aversion (dosa) and delusion (moha). Mundane Right View applies to the mundane world of the cycle of birth and death and any wholesome actions performed may be with the expectation of receiving a good outcome either in this life or in future lives.

In Buddhist teaching, the mundane right view has also been described in relation to the following 10 worldly matters while non-belief in them has been described as the wrong view (micca ditthi):

1. There is merit in alms giving
2. There is merit in large offerings
3. There is merit in small offerings
4. Good and bad deeds lead to good and bad results
5. There is merit in what is done to mother
6. There is merit in what is done to father
7. There are beings of instantaneous birth
8. There is this human world
9. There are other worlds
10. There are ascetics who attain super-knowledge and make it known to others (10)

Mundane right view is helpful and necessary at the beginning of one’s spiritual journey as it provides the motivation and the right direction for developing the Noble Eight-fold Path.

Supra mundane or superior right view is the correct understanding of the four Noble Truths – that there is suffering, the cause of suffering, the cessation of suffering and the path leading to the cessation of suffering.Correct understanding of the four Noble Truths in relation to the Noble Eight-fold Path takes place in two ways. Firstly, it can happen at the beginning of the Noble Eight-fold Path in the form of a conceptual understanding of the four Noble Truths by learning and reflecting upon them. This understanding is known as right understanding in accordance with the truths (saccanulomika samma-ditthi). Secondly, the proper understanding of the four Noble Truths takes place at the end of the process of the Noble Eight-fold Path by penetrative and experiential realization through meditation and is known as right understanding or the penetrative knowledge of the truths (sacca pativedita samma-ditthi) (11).

Right intention (samma-sankappa)

Right intention, or right thought, is the second factor of the Noble Eight-fold Path that naturally evolves as a result of right view and together they form the stage of the Eight-fold Path called wisdom (panna). Right intention is necessary for the development of the next stage of the path, namely the moral discipline (sila) consisting of right speech, right action and right livelihood.

There are three aspects of right intention:

1. Right intention of renunciation (nekkhamma sankappa)
2. Right intention of good-will (avyapada sankappa)
3. Right intention of harmlessness (avihimsa sankappa)

The right intention of renunciation is to counter the wrong intention of greed. It is to work towards letting go of craving and attachment to external objects that will bring only temporary pleasures since the objects of craving and attachment are impermanent in nature. The temporary experiences of pleasure create the urge to seek even more pleasures and to try in vain to possess and protect those experiences.

The right intention of goodwill is to counter the wrong intention of ill will. This counters the wrong intention of negative emotions like ill will, anger, resentment, aversion and hatred towards others. This is achieved by developing unconditional loving kindness (metta) towards all beings that can be done by practising the meditation on loving kindness (metta bhavana). During this meditation, one first develops loving kindness towards oneself and then directs it to all living beings.

The right intention of harmlessness is to counter the wrong intention of harmfulness. It is to counter the negative and harmful thoughts of aggression and violence towards others and is achieved by developing compassion (karuna) towards all other beings since they are also subject to various kinds of suffering.

Right speech (samma-vaca)

Right speech is the third of the eight factors of the Noble Eight-fold Path and the first of the three factors of the division of moral discipline (sila). Within the Noble Eight-fold Path, right speech is guided by the first two factors of right view and right intention. There are four aspects of right speech:

1. Abstinence from false speech or telling lies
2. Abstinence from malicious, backbiting, divisive or slanderous speech
3. Abstinence from harsh, blameful or hurtful speech
4. Abstinence from gossip, vain talk or idle chatter

In positive terms, while avoiding the four types of wrong and unwholesome speech as described above, right speech consists of speaking the truth; speech that promotes harmony and friendship among others; speech that is friendly, gentle, comforting and polite; and speech that is truthful, factual and useful to others. In the Noble Eight-fold Path, right speech contributes not only to positive ethical behaviour but also to promoting one’s spiritual progress and mental purification. Buddha’s advice with regard to right speech is to reflect before speaking, while speaking and after speaking, to note whether the words are likely to cause any harm to oneself, others or to both oneself and others, and on the positive side whether one’s speech is of benefit to oneself, others or both.

Right action (samma-kammanta)

Right action is the fourth factor of the Noble Eight-fold Path and the second of the three factors of the division of moral discipline (sila). Right action, by the avoidance of unwholesome physical or bodily actions, will result in an ethical life and will lead to peace and harmony between oneself and others. There are three aspects to right action:

1. Abstinence from killing any living beings
2. Abstinence from stealing
3. Abstinence from sexual misconduct

In positive terms, abstinence from killing will help one to respect the lives of others and to develop loving kindness, compassion and goodwill for all living beings. Abstinence from stealing will help one to develop the qualities of honesty, generosity and respect for the rights of others to their property. Abstinence from sexual misconduct will help one develop respect for marriage and relationships and self-restraint with regard to one’s sensual desires.

Right livelihood (samma-ajiva)

Right livelihood is the fifth factor of the Noble Eight-fold Path and the third of the three factors of the division of moral discipline (sila). It expects one to make one’s living by ethical, legal and honest means following certain ethical standards and causing no harm or suffering to other living beings directly or indirectly. There are five types of trades that are to be avoided by a layperson in order to maintain a right livelihood:

1. Trading in living beings including human beings and animals
2. Trading in arms and weapons
3. Trading in intoxicants including alcohol and illicit drugs
4. Trading in poisons
5. Trading in meat

Right effort (samma-vayama)

Right effort is the sixth factor of the Noble Eight-fold Path and the first of the three factors of the division of concentration or mental development (samadhi), the other two factors being right mindfulness and right concentration. Right effort provides the necessary energy to develop all the other seven factors of the path but, in particular, it provides the energy to develop the right mental concentration necessary to develop right wisdom.

There are four aspects to right effort:

1. Effort to prevent the arising of un- arisen unwholesome mental states
2. Effort to abandon the unwholesome mental states that have arisen
3. Effort to develop the wholesome mental states that have not yet arisen
4. Effort to maintain and further develop the wholesome mental states that have arisen

Here, the unwholesome mental states are rooted in mental defilements such as greed, hatred and delusion which may appear during one’s meditation practice as the five mental hindrances – sensual desire (kamacchanda); ill will (vyapada); sloth and torpor (thina-middha); restlessness and remorse (uddacca-kukkucca); and sceptical doubt (vicikicca). Wholesome mental states are the seven factors of enlightenment (sapta bojjhanga) – mindfulness (sati); investigation of phenomena (dhamma-vicaya); energy (viriya); rapture (piti); tranquillity (passaddhi); concentration (Samadhi); and equanimity (upekha) (12).

In order to be effective, right effort, which provides the energy to the whole process leading up to right wisdom, has to be positively influenced by right view and right intention and it should also be maintained in a balanced and sustained manner.

Right mindfulness (samma-sati)

Right mindfulness is the seventh factor of the Noble Eight-fold Path and the second factor of the division of higher mental development or concentration (samadhi). Mindfulness is deliberately paying bare and detached attention to thoughts, emotions and feelings in the present moment in a non-judgmental fashion. As taught by the Buddha in the Satipatthana sutta, right mindfulness is to be developed through the four foundations of mindfulness, namely:

1. Contemplation of the body (kayanupassana)
2. Contemplation of feelings (vedananupassana)
3. Contemplation of the mind (cittanupassana)
4. Contemplation of the mind objects (dhammanupassana)

Before describing these four foundations of mindfulness in the Satipatthana sutta, the Buddha declared that:

“This is the one and the only way for the purification (of the minds) of beings, for overcoming of sorrow and lamentation, for the cessation of physical and mental pain, for attainment of the Noble Paths, and for the realization of Nibbana” (13)

In contemplation of the body, one contemplates through mindfulness on breathing (anapanasati); the four postures of the body – sitting, standing, lying and walking (iriyapatha); clear comprehension in bodily actions and movements (satisampajanna); repulsiveness of the body made up of the 32 loathsome parts (paticulamanasikara); the four elements (dhatumanasikara) of earth (patavi), water (apo), fire (thejo) and air (vayo) representing the qualities of solidity, cohesion, heat and motion; and the dead body in the nine stages of gradual decomposition (navasivathika).

In contemplation of feelings, one mindfully contemplates on origination and dissolution of feelings that can be pleasant, unpleasant or neutral.

In contemplation of the mind, one is mindfully aware of any states of mind such as greed, non-greed, aversion, non-aversion, delusion, non-delusion, lazy mind, distracted mind, developed mind, undeveloped mind, inferior mind, superior mind, concentrated mind, un-concentrated mind, the mind free from defilements and the mind not free from defilements, that are present in any given moment.

In contemplation of mind objects, one mindfully observes mental phenomena such as the five mental hindrances (pancha nivarana); five aggregates of clinging (pancha-upadanaskhandha); the six internal and six external sense bases (ayatana); the seven factors of enlightenment (sapta bojjhanga); and the four Noble Truths (chathur ariyasacca).

In the Satipatthana Sutta, the Buddha has advised the disciples to develop mindfulness on the body, feelings, mind and the mind qualities, ardent, alert, and mindful, putting aside greed and distress with reference to the world (14).

Right concentration (samma-samadhi)

Right concentration is the eighth and final factor of the Noble Eight-fold Path and the third and final factor of the division of mental development or concentration (samadhi). The first seven factors of the path, from right view to right mindfulness, when developed successfully become supportive and requisite conditions for the development of right concentration. This, in turn, will help to further establish moral discipline (sila) and wisdom (panna). Right concentration in the context of the Noble Eight-fold Path is different from the higher levels of concentration or one-pointedness developed in other mundane situations in life. Right concentration has to be wholesome and accompanied by the suppression of mental hindrances and, when progressed successfully, would lead to deep meditative absorption states and attainment of wisdom or insight.

The five mental hindrances (pancha-nivarana) that are obstacles to mental purification and development of Right concentration are:

1. Sensual desire (kamacchanda)
2. Ill will (vyapada)
3. Sloth and torpor (thina-middha)
4. Restlessness and worry (uddhacca-kukkucca)
5. Sceptical doubt (vicikicca)

There are eight deep meditative absorption states (jhanas) of which the first four are fine material states of mind (rupa jhanas) while the remaining four higher absorption states are formless or immaterial states (arupa jhanas).

In Buddhist teaching, the first four deep absorption states have been described in relation to right concentration within the Noble Eight-fold Path:

1. First meditative absorption state (first jhana)is accompanied by five mental factors called jhanic factors (jhanangas) – applied thought (vitakka); sustained thought (vicara); rapture (piti); happiness (sukha); and one-pointedness (ekaggatha)
2. Second meditative absorption state (second jhana)is accompanied by the three factors of rapture, happiness and one-pointedness, having abandoned the factors of applied thought and sustained thought
3. Third meditative absorption state (third jhana)is accompanied by the two factors of happiness and one-pointedness, having abandoned the factor of rapture
4. Fourth meditative absorption state (fourth jhana)is accompanied by the factor of one-pointedness as well as equanimity (upekha), having abandoned the factor of happiness

In Buddhist teaching, 40 meditation objects have been described as suitable objects for developing concentration of which any could be chosen, depending on one’s temperament, and preferably with the support of a meditation teacher who is described as a spiritual friend (kalyanamittha).

The 40 meditation objects are:

• Ten kasinas or devices: earth, water, fire, wind, blue colour, yellow colour, red colour, white colour, light and space.
• Ten types of foulness: the 10 stages in the decomposition of a corpse.
• Ten contemplations: contemplation on Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha, morality, generosity, heavenly beings, death, body, in breath and out breath, and peace.
• The four sublime states or divine abodes: loving kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity.
• Four immaterial spheres: sphere of boundless space, sphere of boundless consciousness, sphere of nothingness and sphere of neither perception nor non-perception.
• Perception of the loathsomeness of food.
• Analysis of the four elements: earth element, water element, fire element and air element.

In meditation, when the meditator fixes attention on the chosen meditation object and the concentration develops deeper, an acquired sign (uggaha nimitta) appears in the meditator’s mind that is a mental image of the meditation object. As the concentration deepens, it is followed by another sign called the counterpart sign (patibhaga nimitta) which is a finer and brighter image of the same object and is an indication that the meditator is entering a deep mental absorption state through access or neighbourhood concentration (upacara samadhi). As the concentration deepens further with total suppression of the five mental hindrances and development of the five Jhanic factors, the meditator will reach the stage of fixed concentration (appana samadhi) which is the first Jhana or the first stage of deep absorption. This will be followed by higher stages of deep absorption with the gradual deepening of concentration and gradual abandoning of some of the Jhanic factors.

Development of only the deep absorption states or Jhanas do not lead to development of insight or enlightenment by eradicating all the mental defilements. However, a meditator, having attained the states of fixed concentration or access concentration, can then use that deep concentration to practise insight or vipassana meditation in order to gain insight, knowledge and enlightenment. This approach to practising insight meditation following the development of deep absorption states through concentration meditation first is known as samatha yanika. In the other approach, known as suddha vipassana yanika, the goal of meditation is not to develop deep absorption states but to attain enlightenment and Nibbana through insight or vipassana meditation by realizing the true nature of mind and body processes.

In insight meditation, using the one-pointedness developed through Right Concentration, the disciple then focuses attention on the three common characteristics of all natural phenomena – impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha) and no-self (anatta) – eventually developing the insight knowledge (vipassana panna) and attaining the state of Nibbana. The state of Nibbana is attained through four Noble Stages by gradual elimination of the ten fetters (dasa samyojana) that keep beings bound to the cycle of birth and death (samsara):

1. The first Noble Stage of Stream Entry (sotapanna) is attained by the elimination of the three fetters of self-illusion (sakkaya ditthi), sceptical doubt (vicikicca) and indulgence in wrongful rites and ceremonies (silabbata paramasa). A Stream Enterer is expected to attain Nibbana within a maximum of seven life times.
2. The second Noble Stage of Once Returner (sakadagami) is attained by weakening the two fetters of sense desire (kamaraga) and ill will (patigha). A Once Returner is expected to be reborn only once before attaining Nibbana.
3. The Third Noble Stage of Non-Returner (anagami) is attained by totally eliminating the two fetters of sense desire and ill will. A Non Returner will not be reborn in this world again and, after death, will be born in a Pure Abode (suddhavasa) which is a Brahma world where Nibbana is attained by attaining the Arahanthood.
4. The fourth and final Noble Stage of Nibbana is attained by eliminating the remaining five fetters of: desire to be born in fine material worlds (ruparaga) and immaterial worlds (aruparaga); conceit (mana); restlessness (uddaccha); and ignorance (avijja) thus becoming an enlightened one (arahat) with no further rebirth and associated suffering (15).

The eight factors of the Noble Eight-fold Path have traditionally been presented in the order in which they are discussed above, beginning with right view and ending with right concentration. However, they are not expected to be developed in an orderly step-by-step manner as they can be present together in any given stage of the path supporting each other. Some factors can be more prominent than others at any particular stage. They can be developed simultaneously at a pace dependent on the capacity of each individual. From a practical point of view, it is advisable for one’s spiritual development that one begins with the factor of morality (sila) followed by the factors of concentration (samadhi) and wisdom (panna) in that order.

It can be said that the Buddha’s teachings, expounded over a period of 45 years from the attainment of enlightenment to His passing away, are focused around the Noble Eight-fold Path. However, the Buddha presented it in many different ways and through many different methods in order for the teaching to be understood by different people with different levels of spiritual development and capacity (16).

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References

1. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Dhamma cakkappavattana Sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
2. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1999), ‘The Four Noble Truths: A Study Guide’, Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), November 2013.
3. Walpola Sri Rahula, ‘The First Sermon of the Buddha’, tricycle.org/magazine/the-first-sermon-of-the-buddha/
4. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi1995, Saccavibhanga sutta, Translation of the Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications.
5. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi1995,  Mahacattarisaka sutta, Translation of the Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications.
6. Walshe, Maurice (1987), Mahaparinibbana sutta in “Thus Have I Heard”, The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Digha Nikaya, Wisdom Publications, London.
7. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi1995,  Culavedalla sutta, Translation of the Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications.
8. Bhikkhu Bodhi, ‘The two kinds of Noble Eightfold Path’, http://www.beyondthenet.net/dhamma/mundanePath.htm
9. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi1995,  Cula-Kamma Vibhanga sutta, Translation of the Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications.
10. Ven. Ledi. Sayadaw (1977), ‘The Noble Eightfold Path and It’s Factors Explained’, The Wheel Publication, No. 245/247, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
11. Bhikkhu Bodhi (1994), ‘The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the end of Suffering’, The Wheel Publications, No. 308/311, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
12. Bhikkhu Bodhi (1994), ‘The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the end of Suffering’, The Wheel Publications, No. 308/311, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
13. Walshe, Maurice (1987), Maha Satipatthana sutta in “Thus Have I Heard”, The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Digha Nikaya, Wisdom Publications, London.
14. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi 1995, Satipatthana  sutta, Translation of the Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications.
15. Ven. Narada Maha Thera 1982,, Buddhism in a Nutshell, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
16. Dr Walpola Rahula 1996, What the Buddha Taught, Buddhist Cultural Center, Dehiwala, Sri Lanka.

End.

 

Thirty-Seven Requisites of Enlightenment: Bodhipakkhiya dhamma in Theravada Buddhism

Thirty-Seven Requisites of Enlightenment: 

Bodhipakkhiya dhamma in Theravada Buddhism

 by Dr. Ari Ubeysekara

Introduction

The thirty seven requisites of enlightenment or bodhipakkhiya dhamma in the Pali language and bodhipaksa dharma in the Sanskrit language are the requisites or qualities (dhamma) related (pakkhiya) to awakening or enlightenment (bodhi) in Buddhism. In many of the discourses, Buddha has referred to the significance of developing these 37 requisites to developing one’s mind and to attain liberation. For example, according to the Mahaparinibbana sutta of the Digha Nikaya, the collection of Buddha’s long discourses, while addressing the monks before His passing away Buddha has stated that:

“Monks, I say to you that these teachings of which I have direct knowledge and which I have made known to you, these you should thoroughly learn, cultivate, develop and frequently practise, so that the life of purity may be established and may long endure, for the welfare and happiness of the multitude, out of compassion for the world, for the benefit, well being, and happiness of Gods and men.

And what, bhikkhus, are these teachings? They are the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four constituents of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of enlightenment, and the Noble Eight-fold Path” (1).

In the Pasadika sutta of the Digha Nikaya, as a means of avoiding any disagreement or dispute about the teaching and referring to these 37 requisites, Buddha advised the disciples:

“All of you, whom I have taught these truths [37 requisites of enlightenment] that I have directly known, should gather together and recite them, comparing meaning with meaning, comparing text with text without dissension, so that the holy life will last long” (2).

The Seven Groups

The 37 requisites of enlightenment are described in the following seven groups:

1. Four foundations of mindfulness (satipatthana)
2. Four types of right effort (sammappadana)
3. Four bases of mental power (iddhipada)
4. Five spiritual faculties (pancha indriya)
5. Five spiritual powers (pancha bala)
6. Seven factors of enlightenment (satta bojjhanga) and
7. The Noble Eight-fold Path (ariya atthangika magga)

1. Four foundations of mindfulness (satipatthana)

1.1 Contemplation of the body (kayanupassana)

1.2 Contemplation of feelings (vedananupassana)

1.3 Contemplation of the mind (cittanupassana) and

1.4 Contemplation of mind objects (dhammanupassana)

In the Satipatthana sutta, before describing the four foundations of mindfulness and their practical aspects and referring to the benefits of practising them, Buddha stated that:

“Bhikkhus, This is the one and the only way for the purification of beings, for overcoming sorrow and lamentation, for the cessation of physical and mental pain, for attainment of the Noble Paths, and for the realization of Nibbana. That is the four satipatthanas” (3).

1.1 Contemplation of the body (kayanupassana)

Contemplation of the body just as the body with no sense of mine, “I” or myself is to be practised under six sections or types of practice:

1. Mindfulness on in and out breathing (anapana pabba)
2. Mindfulness of the four postures – walking, standing, sitting and lying down: (iriyapatha pabba)
3. Clear understanding of all activities (sampajanna pabba)
4. Mindfulness of the 32 impurities of the body (paticulamanasika pabba)
5. Mindfulness of the four elements – earth element, water element, heat element and air element (dhatumanasika pabba) and
6. Mindfulness of the nine stages of a decaying corpse (navasivathika pabba)

 1.2 Contemplation of feelings (vedananupassana)

Contemplation of feelings just as feelings with no sense of mine, “I” or myself, which are of three types;

1. Pleasant feelings (sukha vedana)
2. Unpleasant feelings (dukkha vedana) and
3. Neither pleasant nor unpleasant feelings (adukkhamasukha vedana

With each of the three types of feeling, the meditator is aware whether the feeling is associated with sense pleasures (samisa vedana) or not associated with sense pleasures (niramisa vedana).

1.3 Contemplation of the mind (cittanupassana)

Contemplation of the mind just as mind and just as a phenomenon with no sense of mine, I or myself is to be done by observing the following:

1. A mind with greed or without greed;
2. A mind with anger or without anger;
3. A mind with delusion or without delusion;
4. A lazy mind;
5. A distracted mind;
6. A developed or undeveloped mind;
7. An inferior or superior mind;
8. A concentrated or un-concentrated mind; and
9. A mind free from defilements or not free from defilements.

1.4 Contemplation of mind objects (dhammanupassana)

Contemplation of mind objects just as mind objects with no sense of mine, I or myself is done on the following mind objects:

1. Five mental hindrances or nivarana pabba: sense desire (kamachanda), ill will (vyapada), sloth and torpor (thina-middha), restlessness and worry (uddhacca–kukkucca), and sceptical doubt (vicikiccha)
2. The aggregates or khanda pabba—the five aggregates of clinging: the corporeal body (rupa), feeling (vedana), perception (sanna), mental formations (sankhara), and consciousness (vinnana)
3. Six internal and external sense bases or ayatana pabba: the eye and the visible objects, the ear and the sounds, the nose and the odours, the tongue and the tastes, the body and the tactile objects, and the mind and the mind objects
4. Seven factors of enlightenment or bojjhanga pabba: the factor of mindfulness (sati sambojjhanaga), the factor of investigation of phenomena (dhammavicaya sambojjhanga), the factor of effort (viriya sambojjhanga), the factor of rapture (piti sambojjhanga), the factor of tranquility (passaddhi sambojjhanga), the factor of concentration (samadhi sambojjha), and the factor of equanimity (upekkha sambojjhanga) and
5. The Four Noble Truths or sacca pabba: the Noble Truth of suffering (dukkha sacca), the Noble Truth of the cause of suffering (samudaya sacca), the Noble Truth of the cessation of suffering (nirodha sacca), and the Noble Truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering (magga sacca) (4)

2. Four types of right effort (sammappadana)

1. Effort to prevent the arising of unarisen unwholesome mental states (samvara padhana)
2. Effort to abandon unwholesome mental states that have already arisen (pahana padhana)
3. Effort to cultivate un-arisen wholesome mental states (bhavana padhana) and
4. Effort to maintain wholesome mental states that have already arisen ( anurakkhana padhana)

The unwholesome mental states that have not arisen yet refer to the five mental hindrances, or pancha nivarana, of sense desire (kamacchanda); ill will (vyapada); sloth and torpor (thina middha); restlessness and remorse (uddaccha kukkuccha); and sceptical doubt (vicikicca). The unwholesome mental states to be abandoned are the thoughts of sensual desire, hatred and cruelty while the wholesome mental states to be cultivated and maintained are the seven factors of enlightenment. 

3. Four bases of mental power (iddhipada)

1. Desire or will to act (chanda)
2. Effort or energy (viriya)
3. Consciousness or mind (citta) and
4. Investigation or discrimination (vimansa)

“Iddhi” means certain spiritual or mental powers and “pada” means bases. By practising and developing these four mental qualities, it is possible to attain certain super-normal powers such as the ability to walk on water, ability to travel in the air cross-legged, ability to move through the earth, ability to read others’ minds and the ability to remember one’s past lives. However, on the path of liberation they help to develop wholesome mental states and the supra-mundane knowledge pertaining to the eradication of mental defilements in order to attain Nibbana or final liberation. Referring to the significance of these four bases of power in the viraddha sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, another collection of Buddha’s discourses, Buddha has stated that:

 “Monks, those who have neglected the four bases of spiritual power have neglected the noble path leading to the complete destruction of suffering. Those who have undertaken the four bases for spiritual power have undertaken the noble path leading to the destruction of suffering” (5).

 4. Five spiritual faculties (pancha indriya)

1. Faith or conviction (saddha)
2. Energy or effort (viriya)
3. Mindfulness (sati)
4. Concentration (samadhi) and
5. Wisdom (panna)

Of the two kinds of faith—blind faith (amulika saddha) and investigative faith (akarawathi saddha)—it is the investigative faith that is considered here as a spiritual faculty. Faith is essential for one to develop skillful mental qualities and engage in skillful activities like meditation to achieve spiritual progress. When one attains the first noble stage of Stream Entry, (sotapanna), one will possess unshakable faith in the Triple Gem: Buddha – the Enlightened One; Dhamma – Buddha’s teachings; and Sangha – the community of Buddhist monks and nuns who have either attained final liberation or have entered the path of liberation.

Energy or effort is the persistence in avoiding un-arisen unskillful mental qualities, abandoning arisen unskillful mental qualities, cultivating un-arisen skillful mental qualities and maintaining arisen skillful mental qualities.

Mindfulness is attained by contemplating on the body just as the body, feelings just as feelings, mind just as the mind and mind objects just as mind objects.

In the faculty of concentration, by choosing an appropriate meditation object and focusing attention on that, one develops deep states of concentration called Jhana.

Through wisdom, one realizes the suffering, cause of suffering, cessation of suffering and the path leading to the cessation of suffering (6).

Among the five spiritual faculties, the faculties of faith and wisdom are paired together while effort and concentration are paired together in a reciprocal relationship. There has to be a balance between faith and wisdom as well as between effort and concentration in order to facilitate spiritual progress. The faculty of mindfulness acts as the moderator to ensure that each pair maintains the correct balance without resorting to either extreme, which can adversely affect the spiritual development. If, for example, faith dominates over wisdom, the ability of analysis and investigation will weaken whereas should wisdom dominate over faith it will lead to doubt and uncertainty. Similarly, if effort or energy dominates over concentration it will cause restlessness and agitation whereas when concentration dominates over effort it will cause sloth and torpor.

 5. Five spiritual powers (pancha bala)

1. Faith or conviction (saddha)
2. Energy or effort (viriya)
3. Mindfulness (sati)
4. Concentration (samadhi) and
5. Wisdom (panna)

As can be seen, the five spiritual faculties and the five spiritual powers are very similar in number and terminology. When the five spiritual faculties are developed and cultivated well they become firm, strong and powerful enough to oppose and control the factors that can oppose the five spiritual faculties. As powers, faith controls doubt, energy controls laziness, mindfulness controls heedlessness, concentration controls distraction and wisdom controls ignorance. When faith becomes a power, it manifests as the four immeasurables, or brahma vihara, namely loving kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity. When energy and concentration become powers, they lead to deep states of concentration, or Jhana, and when wisdom becomes a power it leads to the insight into the three universal characteristics of impermanence: unsatisfactoriness (anicca); suffering (dukkha); and not self (anatta). Mindfulness becomes a power when one is able to develop mindfulness by contemplating on the body, feelings, mind and the mind objects (7).

6. Seven factors of enlightenment (satta bojjhanga)

1. Mindfulness (sati)
2. Investigation of dhammas (dhamma vicaya)
3. Energy or effort (viriya)
4. Rapture or joy (piti)
5. Tranquility (passaddhi)
6. Concentration (samadhi) and
7. Equanimity (upekkha)

The Pali term “bojjhanga”, consisting of “bodhi” meaning ‘enlightenment’ and “anga” meaning ‘causative factors’, refers to the seven factors or necessary conditions which, when cultivated by a disciple, lead to awakening or enlightenment through the realization of the four Noble Truths. They have also been described as qualities of a noble person or an enlightened person. Beginning with the first factor of mindfulness, they tend to flow in a progression towards the last factor of equanimity with each factor’s development based on the preceding ones.

Mindfulness, the first factor of enlightenment, means non-judgmental awareness from moment to moment and is also the 7^th factor of the Noble Eight-fold Path. It is developed by contemplating on the body, feelings, the mind and the mind objects.

The second factor of investigation refers to the quality of mind that critically discriminates and investigates into the nature of mind and matter or mental and physical phenomena. Through investigation, one gains an analytical knowledge of their true nature consisting of the three universal characteristics of impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and absence of a self. Well-developed mindfulness helps the process of critical investigation into the phenomena as they arise.

The third factor of determined effort, energy, exertion, vigour or diligence is essential throughout the enlightenment process from beginning to end. With determined effort, one acts to prevent the development of mental defilements—sensual desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and remorse, and sceptical doubt—that have not yet arisen. Subsequently, effort is directed to abandon the unwholesome mental states that have already arisen by abandoning thoughts of sensual desire, hatred and cruelty. With determined effort, one also acts to cultivate un-arisen wholesome mental states and to maintain the wholesome mental states that have already arisen. Here, the wholesome mental states are the seven factors of enlightenment. There are three stages of effort required to accomplish a particular task from beginning to completion: the effort required to begin a task (arambha dhatu viriya); sustained effort required to carry on with the task (nikkama dhatu viriya); and the effort required to continue till the completion of the task (parakkama dhatu viriya).

The fourth factor of rapture or joy is the non-sensual (niramisa) happiness and satisfaction felt in the mind as well as the lightness and the waves of bliss felt in the body. Five types or degrees of rapture have been described based on how strong and mature the mental development is: lesser rapture, momentary rapture, overwhelming rapture, uplifting rapture and pervasive rapture (8).

The fifth factor (passaddhi) of calm, serenity, quietness or tranquility naturally follows joy or rapture and leads on to concentration. It is of two types: kaya passaddhi, meaning tranquility of the mental qualities; and citta passaddhi, meaning tranquility of the mind or consciousness. The mental qualities that are quietened in kaya passaddhhi are the aggregates of feeling (vedana); perception (sanna); and the mental formations (sankhara). When tranquility develops, the opposite factors of restlessness and remorse (uddaccha kukkuccha) are controlled.

The sixth factor of concentration, which is calm one-pointedness of the mind focused on a particular internal or external object, follows the factor of tranquility while the other factors of faith, investigation, effort and joy are also conducive to the development of concentration. In concentration meditation (samatha bhavana), the main objective is to develop tranquility and deep states of concentration (Jhana) by focusing attention exclusively on one of 40 meditation objects. There are three levels of concentration that one is able to attain in concentration meditation: preliminary concentration (parikamma samadhi); access concentration (upacara samadhi); and fixed concentration (appana samadhi). As the concentration becomes stronger and deeper, the five mental hindrances of sensual desire ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and remorse, and sceptical doubt are gradually overcome. There has to be a proper balance between the factors of effort and concentration in order to facilitate the development of concentration as an enlightenment factor. There are certain necessary factors that one needs to consider before one begins concentration meditation: moral discipline, a suitable place for meditation, correct effort, determination, and a spiritual friend. The spiritual friend can help the meditator choose the right object for meditation and can also provide guidance and support.

The development of the seventh factor (upekkha) of equanimity or perfect neutrality is facilitated by the preceding six factors and is the mental quality of being non-reactive and neutral with a perfectly balanced mind in the face of experiences such as pleasure and pain. Someone with well-developed equanimity, such as an Arahant, will not react to worldly experiences such as gain and loss, fame and ill repute, praise and blame or pleasure and pain. Equanimity is the last of the four immeasurables (brahma vihara), the others being loving kindness, compassion and sympathetic joy. Equanimity is also a factor associated with Jhana or deep meditative stages in concentration meditation.

7. The Noble Eight-fold Path (ariya atthangika magga)

1. Right view (samma ditthi)
2. Right intention (samma sankappa)
3. Right speech (samma vaca)
4. Right action (samma kammanta)
5. Right livelihood (samma ajiva)
6. Right effort (samma vayama)
7. Right mindfulness (samma sati) and
8. Right concentration (samma samadhi)

From a practical standpoint, the eight factors above can be divided into three groups of practice:

1. Wisdom (panna) consisting of right view and right intention;
2. Morality(sila) consisting of right speech, right action and right livelihood; and
3. Concentration (samadhi) consisting of right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.

The Noble Eight-fold Path is of two kinds: i) The initial mundane path when one begins to purify morality and develop concentration with some degree of insight; and ii) The supra-mundane path that develops with the right view and leads to final enlightenment.

Right view is of two types: mundane right view and supra-mundane right view. Mundane right view is having a correct understanding of the mechanism of volitional actions, or kamma, in which wholesome actions will lead to good results and unwholesome actions will lead to bad results. Supra-mundane right view is the correct understanding of the four Noble Truths of suffering (dukkha), the cause of suffering (samudaya), cessation of suffering (nirodha) and the path leading to the cessation of suffering (magga).

Right intention or right thought evolves as a result of right view and leads to the development of morality (sila). It has three aspects—the intention of renunciation, intention of good will and intention of harmlessness—that are in opposition to the wrong intentions of greed, ill will and harmfulness.

Right speech has four aspects: abstinence from false speech; abstinence from slanderous speech; abstinence from harsh speech; and abstinence from idle chatter.

Right action has three aspects: abstinence from killing any living beings; abstinence from stealing; and abstinence from sexual misconduct.

Right livelihood is the avoidance of five particular trades: i) Trading in living beings; ii) Trading in arms and weapons; iii) Trading in alcohol and other intoxicants; iv) Trading in poisons; and v) Trading in meat.

Right effort provides necessary energy to develop the other seven factors, particularly the factor of right concentration that is necessary to develop right wisdom. It has four aspects: i) Effort to prevent the development of unwholesome mental states that have not arisen; ii) Effort to abandon unwholesome mental states that have arisen; iii) Effort to develop the wholesome mental states that have not arisen; and iv) Effort to maintain the wholesome mental states that have arisen.

Right mindfulness is to be developed through the four foundations of mindfulness: i) contemplation of the body; ii) contemplation of feelings; iii) contemplation of the mind; and iv) contemplation of the mind objects.

When developed properly, the other seven factors of the path from right view to right mindfulness become supportive and requisite conditions for the development of right concentration. Unlike the higher levels of concentration developed in other mundane situations in life, right concentration has to be wholesome and accompanied by the suppression of the mental hindrances. With proper development and progress, right concentration will lead to deep meditative absorption states, or Jhana, and attainment of insight and wisdom (9).

Although 37 requisites of enlightenment have been described in Buddhist teachings, in actuality there are only fourteen different requisites since five requisites seem to appear repeatedly in the seven groups of requisites while the remaining nine qualities appear only once. Examples of this are as follows:

• The requisite of effort appears nine times as the four types of effort; as effort in the four bases of power; as effort in the five spiritual faculties and powers; as effort in the seven factors of enlightenment; and as right effort in the Noble Eight-fold Path.
• The requisite of mindfulness appears eight times as the four foundations of mindfulness; as the factor of mindfulness in the five spiritual faculties and powers; as mindfulness in the seven factors of enlightenment; and as the right mindfulness in the Noble Eight-fold Path.
• The requisite of wisdom appears five times as the factor of investigation in the four bases of mental power; as wisdom in the five spiritual faculties and powers; as investigation of dhammas in seven factors of enlightenment; and as right view in the Noble Eight-fold Path.
• The requisite of concentration appears four times as concentration in the five spiritual faculties and powers; as concentration in the seven factors of enlightenment; and as the right concentration in the Noble Eight-fold Path.
• The requisite of faith appears twice in the five spiritual faculties and powers (10).

Pre-requisites to requisites of enlightenment

In the Sambodhi sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha has enumerated the following nine qualities as pre-requisites for the development of the 37 requisites of enlightenment.

1. Having admirable friends, companions and comrades
2. Virtuous behaviour with restraint observing the training rules
3. Hearing of talk that is sobering and conducive to understanding. This would include talk on modesty, contentment, value of seclusion and quiet, non-entanglement, effort, morality, concentration, wisdom and knowledge of true vision and release from craving
4. Effort in abandoning unskillful mental qualities and developing skillful mental qualities
5. Has developed the wisdom of arising and passing away
6. Contemplation of the unattractive to abandon lust
7. Develop good will to abandon ill-will
8. Practise mindfulness of in and out breathing to remove distractive thinking
9. Develop the perception of impermanence to uproot the conceit “I am” (11)

These 37 requisites of enlightenment, also known as 37 limbs of awakening described under seven different groups, are believed to be the essence of the entirety of the Buddha’s teaching in relation to the final goal of attaining enlightenment, or the liberation from all suffering, and are recognized as such by both the Mahayana and Theravada traditions of Buddhism. According to Buddhist teachings, the final goal is the attainment of Nibbana that has been described as a supra-mundane state of the highest bliss and eternal happiness devoid of the sufferings of birth, disease, old age, death, grief, lamentation and despair. Nibbana is attained through the four noble stages of Stream Entry (sotapanna), Once Returner (sakadagami), Non-Returner (anagami) and Arahanthood. Any Buddhist disciple aspiring to attain them must invariably develop these 37 factors of enlightenment.

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References

1. Maurice Walshe 1987, Maha Parinibbana sutta in “Thus Have I Heard”, A translation of The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications, London, England.
2. Ven. Ladi Sayadaw 1971, The Requisites of Enlightenment: Bodhipakkhiya Dipani, Book Publication BP412S, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
3. Maha Satipatthana Sutta, Maurice Walshe 1987, Maha Satipatthana sutta in “Thus Have I Heard”, A translation of The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications, London, England.
4. Maurice Walshe 1987, Maha Satipatthana sutta in “Thus Have I Heard”, A translation of The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications, London, England.
5. Iddhipada Explained, accessible at everything.explained.today/iddhipada
6. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi 1995, Indriya Vibhanga sutta, Translation of the Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications.
7. Spritual faculties, Ayya Khema, accessible at “(To Be Seen); Here and Now”; Ten Dhamma Talks” by Sister Ayya Khema, ‘Access to Insight (Legacy Edition)’, November 2013.
8. In This Very Life, Sayadaw Pandita, accessible ahttp://www.panditarama.net/ebooks.inthisverylife.pdf
9. The Noble Eightfold path: The way to the end of Suffering, Bhikku Bodhi, 1994, ‘The Wheel Publications, No: 308/311’, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
10. Ven. Ladi Sayadaw 1971, The Requisites of Enlightenment: Bodhipakkhiya Dipani, Book Publication BP412S, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
11. Bhikkhu Bodhi 2012, Sambodhi sutta, The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, Anguttara Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.

End.

End.