Mental Defilements in Theravada Buddhism

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Mental Defilements in Theravada Buddhism

By Dr. Ari Ubeysekara

Introduction

In the Buddhist teaching, an accumulation of mental defilements or unwholesome qualities of the mind has been described as a prominent cause of the continuation of the cycle of birth and death (samsara) and the suffering experienced by the sentient beings. They need to be completely eradicated if one is to escape from suffering and the cycle of birth and death. Several groups of mental defilements have been described with considerable overlap between them which are believed to operate at different levels of one’s consciousness. The following three mental defilements are described as unwholesome roots (akusala mula) responsible for all the unwholesome mental, verbal and bodily actions that one commits;

  1. Greed or desire (lobha)
  2. Anger or hate (dosa)
  3. Ignorance or delusion (moha)

Unwholesome actions are the mental, verbal and bodily actions that arise due to the three unwholesome roots which are harmful to oneself, others or to both oneself and others.

Whenever a sense object is received through one of the six sense doors of the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and the mind of an unenlightened person, the mental defilements that are present in the mind will act at three different levels:

  1. Subtle level of latent tendency (anusaya)
  2. Intermediate conscious level of obsessions (pariyutthana)
  3. Gross level of transgression (vithikkama)

At the first level of latent tendency (anusaya), mental defilements that exist in the mind at a dormant, subtle or preconscious level get aroused by a particular sense object received through one of the six sense doors. The mental defilements that are aroused give rise to emotions and thoughts at the intermediate conscious level of obsessions (pariyutthana). Finally, at the gross level of the defilements, these emotions and thoughts manifest themselves as unwholesome verbal or bodily actions (vitikkama). At the first and second levels, arousal of the dormant defilements and the arising of emotions and thoughts are confined to one’s own mind with no involvement with the external world. However, at the gross level when the unwholesome thoughts and emotions manifest in the form of verbal and/or bodily action, it can affect one’s moral behaviour with negative effects to oneself and others around.

In the Vatthupama sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s middle length discourses), using the simile of a stained cloth, the Buddha has described sixteen different mental defilements that can negatively affect one’s spiritual journey. They are;

  1. Covetousness and unrighteous greed (abhijjha-visamalobha)
  2. Ill-will (vyapada)
  3. Anger (kodha)
  4. Hostility (upanaha)
  5. Contempt (makkha)
  6. Insolence (palasa)
  7. Envy (issa)
  8. Avarice (macchariya)
  9. Deceit (maya)
  10. Fraud (satheyya)
  11. Obstinacy (thambha)
  12. Rivalry (sarambha)
  13. Conceit (mana)
  14. Arrogance (atimana)
  15. Vanity (mada)
  16. Negligence (pamada) (1)

In the Sangiti sutta of the Digha Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s long discourses), another group of four mental defilements called bodily ties or knots (kayagantha) has been described . They are called ties as they tie the beings in the cycle of birth and death (samsara) from one existence to the next existence. The term kaya in kayagantha is believed to represent it’s role in making a knot between the physical and the mental body in the past existence to that of the new existence. 

The four bodily ties (kayagantha) 

  1. The bodily tie of covetousness (abhijjha kayagantha)
  2. The bodily tie of ill-will (vyapada kayagantha)
  3. The bodily tie of rules and rituals (silabbata paramasa kayagantha)
  4. The bodily tie of dogmatism (idam-saccabhinivesa kayagantha) (2)

Four other main groups of mental defilements have often been described in the Buddhist teachings, which contribute to the suffering and the repeated existence of beings in the cycle of birth and death.

  1. Latent tendencies (anusaya)
  2. Fermentations or taints (asava)
  3. Fetters (samyojana)
  4. Mental hindrances (nivarana)

Latent tendencies (anusaya)

The Pali word “anusaya” literally meaning “to lie down with”, when translated into English has several meanings such as bias, latent tendencies, proclivities, underlying tendencies, latent dispositions, predispositions and obsessions. They are called latent as they have the tendency to remain dormant in the mind life after life until they are completely eradicated by attaining the state of Nibbana through the cultivation of the Noble Eight-fold Path. They are like the sediments that lie quietly at the bottom of a container of water until the water is stirred when they will come up and make the water cloudy and dirty. In response to sense objects received through the sense doors the latent tendencies initiate obsessions at the conscious level and unwholesome verbal and bodily actions at the gross level. While doing so, they themselves get reinforced and continue to accumulate strength from those very actions.

Latent tendencies can also be compared to a dormant volcano which becomes active and erupts when the conditions are right. We are not conscious of them as they tend to exist at a pre-conscious level called the mind state of the life continuum (bhavanga citta). As long as they exist as dormant dispositions they are able to negatively influence our behaviour and the way we respond to stimuli that we continuously receive through the sense doors.

In the Anusaya sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s numerical discourses), the Buddha has described seven such latent tendencies.

Seven latent tendencies (anusaya)

  1. Latent tendency of desire for sense pleasures (kamaraganusaya)
  2. Latent tendency of aversion (patighanusaya)
  3. Latent tendency of conceit (mananusaya)
  4. Latent tendency of wrong view (ditthanusaya)
  5. Latent tendency of doubt (vicikiccanusaya)
  6. Latent tendency of desire for existence (bhava-raganusaya)
  7. Latent tendency of ignorance (avijjanusaya) (3)

A brief teaching to the monks by the Buddha in the Madhupindika sutta (the Discourse on the Honey-ball) of the Majjhima Nikaya, which was later elaborated by Arahant Kaccana, has shown how a sense experience through any one of the six sense doors leads on to mental or conceptual proliferation (papancha) in an unenlightened mind. The Buddha named the above seven latent tendencies and emphasised the significant role played by craving (tanha), conceit (mana) and wrong view (ditthi) in conceptual proliferation. They correspond to the three latent tendencies of lust for sense pleasure (kamaraganusaya), conceit (mananusaya) and wrong view (ditthanusaya). These three latent tendencies have the tendency to interpret the sense experiences through the six sense doors in the past, present and the future, in terms of “this is mine”, “this I am” and “this is myself”.

The concepts developed through conceptual proliferation can distort the sense experience with no resemblance to the initial sense object received and, will lead to various emotions, feelings, evaluations, opinions, judgements, desires and expectations. They will invariably lead to unwanted negative thoughts, suffering and conflicts (4).

When a meditator is practising concentration meditation (samatha bhavana) for mental development, the concentration can develop to the level of one-pointedness and then attain gradually higher levels of deep absorption called Jhana. There are four states of fine material absorptions (rupa jhana) and four states of immaterial absorptions (arupa jhana). These states are attained by total suppression of the five mental hindrances and the development of five Jhanic factors. However, even with these higher levels of deep absorptions accompanied by the total suppression of the five mental hindrances, the latent tendencies (anusaya) continue to exist in a dormant state and will respond whenever the conditions are right. They will condition the unwholesome roots of greed (lobha), hate (dosa) and ignorance (moha) to cause unwholesome mental, verbal and bodily actions.

Whenever a sense object is received by one of the six sense doors, a feeling arises following the sense impression (phassa), which is the combination of the three aspects of the sense object, the sense door and the respective consciousness. In the Buddhist teaching three main types of feeling have been described.

  1. Pleasant feeling (sukha vedana)
  2. Painful feeling (dukkha vedana)
  3. Neither pleasant nor painful feeling (adukkham-asukha vedana)

Some of the latent tendencies can underlie a feeling that arises following a sense impression from a sense object. For example, in the Cula Vedalla sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya, Arahant nun Dhammadinna stated that while the latent tendency of desire for sense pleasure underlies the pleasant feeling and the latent tendency of aversion underlies the painful feeling, the latent tendency of ignorance underlies the feeling that is neither pleasant nor painful.

  1. Latent tendency of desire for sense pleasure (kamaraganusaya) underlies the pleasant feeling
  2. Latent tendency of aversion (patighanusaya) underlies the painful feeling
  3. Latent tendency of ignorance (avijjanusaya) underlies the neutral feeling (5)

It should however be noted that there are exceptions to the above relationship between a particular type of feeling and the respective latent tendency. For example, the pleasant feeling experienced in the deep absorption states (jhana) during concentration meditation has no latent tendency of desire for sense pleasure (kamaraganusaya) underlying it.

Latent tendency of desire for sense pleasure (kamaraganusaya)

The latent tendency of desire or lust for sense pleasure is the habitual tendency that lies at the pre-conscious level and underlies the desire for sense pleasure from the six sense objects that are received through the six sense doors.

  1. Pleasant visual objects through the eye
  2. Pleasant sounds through the ear
  3. Pleasant smells through the nose
  4. Pleasant taste through the tongue
  5. Pleasant touches through the body
  6. Pleasant mind objects through the mind

Whenever a pleasant object is received through one of the sense doors, that arouses a pleasant feeling (sukha vedana), the latent tendency of lust or greed for sense pleasure (kamaraganusaya) that exists in a dormant or sleepy state will be aroused automatically and will give rise to thoughts and emotions at the surface level of consciousness.

So long as we remain ignorant of the true nature of the sense objects, that they are impermanent (anicca), cause suffering (dukkha) and are insubstantial (anatta), this latent tendency will habitually direct us to seek sense objects believing them to be permanent, pleasant and substantial.

The latent tendency of desire for sense pleasure (kamaraganusaya) persists even when one attains the first stage of the supra mundane path called Stream Entry (sotapanna), It gets attenuated by the time one attains the second stage of Once Returner (sakadagami) and is totally eradicated only at the third stage of Non -Returner (anagami).

Latent tendency of aversion (patighanusaya)

When an unpleasant or painful sense object is received through one of the sense doors, the latent tendency of aversion will habitually become aroused and cause obsessions to arise at the level of consciousness (pariyutthana) which may then enter the gross level of transgression (vitikkama) manifesting as unwholesome verbal and/or bodily actions. Aversion can manifest in a variety of forms such as ill-will, irritation, opposition, anger, animosity, hostility, malice, malevolence, resistance, fear, anxiety etc.

The latent tendency of aversion underlies a painful or unpleasant feeling following a sense impression. The tendencies of desire for sense pleasure and aversion are in a way linked to each other. Desire for sense pleasure arises when a pleasant sensation appears while aversion arises when the pleasant sensation comes to an end. Similarly, aversion arises when one receives an unpleasant or painful sensation while desire for sense pleasure arises when the unpleasant sensation comes to an end.

The latent tendency of aversion will continue to exist and operate as a dormant mental defilement so long as one remains an unenlightened person. It will be attenuated when one attains the second stage of the supra mundane path known as Once Returner (sakadagami) and is totally eradicated at the third noble stage of Non-Returner (anagami).

Latent tendency of conceit (mananusaya)

This is one’s latent tendency to compare oneself with others. Having been accumulated over a limitless number of existences during the cycle of birth and death (samsara), the latent tendency of conceit or pride exists in a dormant state until it comes into contact with a sense object received through one of the sense doors. It will immediately get aroused and condition emotions and thoughts at the surface level of consciousness (pariyutthana). At the same time depending on the emotions and thoughts and the actions that took place at the gross level of transgression (vitikkama), the latent tendency of conceit will get reinforced to continue to persist.

One may compare oneself with others in areas such as caste, race, physical beauty, strength, power, health, wealth, knowledge and even one’s achievements in meditation. Comparison with others can take one of the three forms;

  1. I am superior to others (seyya mana)
  2. I am equal to others (sadisa mana)
  3. I am inferior to others (hina mana)

Conceit is an extremely powerful latent tendency which is difficult to get rid of and can exist even in those who have attained the supra mundane noble stages of Stream Entry (sotapanna), Once Returner (sakadagami) and Non-Returner (anagami). It would be in the form of subtle conceit (asmi mana) in which one carries the feeling of “I am” in relation to the five aggregates of clinging (pancha–upadanaskhanda) which are form (rupa), feeling (vedana), perception (sanna), mental formation (sankhara) and consciousness (vinnana). This subtle ego conceit of “I am”, is eliminated only when one attains the final Noble stage of Arahantship. 

Latent tendency of wrong view (ditthanusaya)

Along with the latent tendencies of desire for sensual pleasure (kamaraganusaya) and aversion (patighanusaya), this is one of the strongest among the seven latent tendencies. The latent tendency of wrong view is the underlying tendency that leads to the wrong belief of a permanent entity called the “ego” or “self” in relation to the five aggregates of clinging (pancha-upadanakkhanda). What one calls a person, individual or a being is nothing but a Psycho-physical complex (nama-rupa) consisting of the five aggregates of clinging namely; form (rupa), feeling (vedana), perception (sanna), mental formations (sankhara) and consciousness (vinnana). However, through perverted thinking (vipallasa) due to the ignorance of the three marks of all existence; impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha) and not-self (anatta), unenlightened beings take them to be an “ego” or “self” (sakkaya ditthi).

It is important that the latent tendency of wrong view is eliminated first before one works towards eliminating the other latent tendencies. With the development of the right view (samma ditthi) by listening to the true teachings of the Buddha (saddhammasavana) and by wise attention (yoniso manasikara), a Buddhist disciple will be able to totally eradicate the latent tendency of wrong view when one develops the right view (samma ditthi) at the first path consciousness of the Stream Entry (sotapanna).

Latent tendency of doubt (vicikiccanusaya)

Doubt, uncertainty or indecision is a mental defilement that can adversely affect one’s spiritual progress. There are two types of doubt. Firstly, one can have a genuine doubt about some aspect of the Buddha’s teaching or the spiritual practice towards final enlightenment. This type of doubt arises from lack of knowledge about a particular aspect, but this is a healthy doubt which through proper inquiry and investigation will bring the correct knowledge that will help one’s practice.

Secondly, one can have sceptical doubt, and this is a mental defilement that will adversely affect one’s spiritual progress. A meditator may develop doubts about one’s own practice, the teacher or the teaching itself. In the Buddhist teaching eight different types of sceptical doubt have been described.

  1. Doubt about the Buddha
  2. Doubt about the Dhamma (Buddha’s teaching)
  3. Doubt about the Sangha (Buddhist monastic community)
  4. Doubt about the spiritual training required (sila, samadhi and panna)
  5. Doubt about the past
  6. Doubt about the future
  7. Doubt about both the past and the future
  8. Doubt about conditionality or Dependent Origination (paticca samuppada)

The latent tendency of doubt (vicikiccanusaya) is totally eradicated along with the latent tendency of wrong view (ditthanusaya) when one attains the first noble stage of Stream Entry (sotapanna).

Latent tendency of desire for existence (bhava-raganusaya)

While expounding the four Noble Truths of suffering (dukkha sacca), the cause of suffering (samudaya sacca), cessation of suffering (nirodha sacca) and the path leading to the cessation of suffering (magga sacca), the Buddha described craving (tanha) as the cause of suffering consisting of three types.

  1. Craving for sensual pleasure (kama tanha)
  2. Craving for existence (bhava tanha)
  3. Craving for non-existence (vibhava tanha)

It is believed that though craving has been divided into three types, craving for sensual pleasure and craving for non-existence are also different aspects of craving for existence which is considered as the main form of craving. The latent tendency of desire for existence consists of two aspects;

  1. Desire to be born in fine material world (rupa raga)
  2. Desire to be born in immaterial world (arupa raga)

The desire to be born in fine material world (rupa loka) and immaterial world (arupa loka) is fulfilled through the development of deep absorption states (jhana). These states are developed by the practice of concentration meditation (samatha bhavana).

Latent tendency of desire for existence (bhava-raganusaya) is totally eradicated along with the remaining latent tendencies at the final noble stage of Arahanthood.

Latent Tendency of Ignorance (avijjanusaya)

Ignorance can be considered as the root cause of all unwholesome actions. Ignorance, acting as a hindrance (nivarana) along with craving (tanha) which acts as a fetter (samyojana) and volitional actions (kamma) keep us bound to the repeated cycle of birth and death (samsara). Ignorance (avijja) has been described by the Buddha as the first of the 12 factors of conditioned arising known as Dependent Origination (paticca samuppada) in which it conditions the next factor of mental formation (sankhara)

In the Buddhist teaching, ignorance is generally considered as the ignorance of the four Noble Truths. It can also be considered as the ignorance of the reality of all existing physical and mental phenomena; impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha) and not self (anatta). As already mentioned above in relation to the Cula Vedalla sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya, latent tendency of ignorance underlies the neither pleasant nor unpleasant (neutral) feeling that may arise following a sense impression in one of the six sense doors. In the same process the latent tendency of ignorance can be reinforced and strengthened further by the appearance of such neutral feelings as a result of not seeing the reality.

The latent tendency of ignorance (avijjanusaya) is totally eradicated along with the latent tendencies of conceit (mananusaya) and desire for existence (bhava–raganusaya) when one attains enlightenment (arahanthood)

Fermentations or taints (asava)

The Pali word for the mental defilements known as fermentations is “asava” meaning “to flow”. The direction of the flow of these defilements has been described as inward from the external senses towards the mind, outward from the mind or both inward and outward. As such they are also called influxes and effluents in addition to several other terms such as taints, cankers and corruptions. They are called fermentations (asava) because, like the intoxicants produced by the process of fermenting alcoholic drinks, these mental defilements which are mental intoxicants capable of corroding and corrupting the mind continue to fester and intoxicate the mind giving rise to suffering and continued existence in the cycle of birth and death. The fermentations can also be compared to the pus discharging from an infected wound or water trickling from cracks in a pot due to their continuous trickling from the unguarded sense doors of the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and the mind.

Three fermentations (asava) 

  1. Fermentation of sense desire (kamasava)
  2. Fermentation of desire for continued existence (bhavasava)
  3. Fermentation of ignorance (avijjasava)

In the discourses (suttas) of the Buddha such as the Nibbedhika sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s numerical discourses) and the Sabbasava sutta and Sammaditthi sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya (Collection of the Buddha’s middle length discourses) only the above three fermentations have been described. However, in the Abhidhamma (Buddha’s higher teaching) and some other discourses, wrong views (ditthasava) has also been described as a fermentation resulting in a set of four fermentations.

Four fermentations (asava) 

  1. Fermentation of sense desire (kamasava)
  2. Fermentation of desire for continued existence (bhavasava)
  3. Fermentation of wrong views (ditthasava)
  4. Fermentation of Ignorance (avijjasava)

The set of three fermentations may have appeared in the Buddhist teaching at an earlier time than the set of four fermentations. The third fermentation of wrong views (ditthasava) can be considered to have been subsumed under the fermentation of the desire for continued existence (bhavasava) as it is based on false views such as the belief in eternalism (sassatavada).

In the Nibbedhika sutta, the Buddha has described five types of fermentations depending on where the sentient beings are reborn due to the presence of the fermentations.

  1. Fermentations leading to rebirth in hell
  2. Fermentations leading to rebirth in the animal kingdom
  3. Fermentations leading to rebirth in hungry shades
  4. Fermentations leading to rebirth in the human world
  5. Fermentations leading to rebirth in the celestial worlds (6)

In the Ogha sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha has described these four mental defilements using the metaphor of the flood (ogha). Unenlightened beings get dragged into more and more suffering by these mental defilements just as one is swept away in the ocean by the floods, the ocean here meaning the cycle of birth and death (samsara).

  1. Flood of sensuality (kama-ogha)
  2. Flood of becoming (bhava-ogha)
  3. Flood of views (ditthi-ogha)
  4. Flood of ignorance (avijja-ogha) (7)

In the Yoga sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha has compared these same four mental defilements to a yoke (yoga). A yoke has been described as a piece of wood that used to be attached to the necks of cattle to get them to pull a loaded cart or a plough. Similar to cattle who suffer by being bonded to pull a loaded cart or a plough, beings become enslaved by these four defilements and continue to experience suffering and continued existence of the cycle of birth and death.

  1. Yoke of sensuality (kama-yoga)
  2. Yoke of becoming (bhava-yoga)
  3. Yoke of views (ditthi-yoga)
  4. Yoke of ignorance (avijja-yoga) (8)

Through the intoxicating actions of the fermentations one becomes deluded and is unable to see the true characteristics of mental and physical phenomena which are falsely seen as favourable and positive instead of their true nature. This delusion comes in four ways.

  1. Unattractive seen as attractive
  2. Impermanent seen as permanent
  3. Suffering seen as satisfactory and pleasurable
  4. Not self seen as self

In the Sammaditthi sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya, Venerable Sariputta has stated that understanding the fermentations, the origin of the fermentations, their cessation and the path leading to the cessation of the fermentations constitute one of the ways in which one develops right view (samma ditthi) (9).

Fermentation of sense desire (kamasava)

Fermentation of sense desire is the desire for sense objects received through the five sense doors; pleasant visible objects through the eye, pleasant sounds through the ear, pleasant smells through the nose, pleasant tastes through the tongue and pleasant tangible objects through the body. In the Nibbedhika sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha described them as five strings of sensuality which are “agreeable, pleasing, charming, endearing, fostering desire, enticing”.

When a pleasurable sense object is received, craving will arise to have more of it and when one receives an unpleasant sense object craving will arise to get rid of it. Each and every sense object that one experiences through the five sense organs and considered to be pleasant, depends on antecedent conditions which are themselves dependent and subjected to change and hence they cannot bring any lasting happiness. Instead, they will eventually lead to suffering due to their very transient nature.

In the Ahara sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s grouped discourses), the Buddha has stated that there are pleasant and attractive things (subha nimitta). Giving frequent unwise attention (ayoniso manasikara) to them is the nutriment for the arising of sensual desire that has not arisen and for the increase and strengthening of sensual desire that has already arisen (10).

The fermentation of desire for sense pleasures (kamasava) is weakened when one attains the second Noble stage of Once Returner (sakadagami) and is totally eradicated when one attains the third Noble stage of Non-Returner (anagami).

Fermentation of continued existence (bhavasava) 

Fermentation of continued existence is the craving to be born either in the fine material worlds (rupa loka) or the immaterial formless worlds (arupa loka) with the belief that they are permanent states. Those who hold a personality or self view (sakkaya ditthi) have two types of beliefs:

  1. Eternity belief (sassata ditthi) – The belief in the presence of a persisting ego entity or a soul independent of mind and matter, which continues to exist after death
  2. Annihilation belief (ucceda ditthi) – The belief in the presence of an ego identity that is identical with the mind and matter, which will be totally annihilated at the time of death

The Buddha rejected both these views stating that what is described as an individual or a personality is just a conventional way of describing a psycho-physical complex of mind-matter (nama–rupa) which arise and cease on a continuous basis and are in a state of flux with no permanent abiding entity.

Those who hold the eternity belief (sassata ditthi) desire to be born either in one of the sixteen fine material worlds (rupa loka) or one of the four formless worlds (arupa loka) expecting to attain eternal happiness or bliss. This is attained by developing deep absorption states (jhana) through concentration meditation (samatha bhavana). However, rebirth in any one of these worlds would still be temporary. Having experienced bliss and happiness for an innumerable length of time (kalpas) when the force of the volitional actions (kamma) that caused that rebirth there is exhausted, one will again go through death and reborn in the sense world (kama loka) continuing the cycle of birth and death (samsara) (11).

Fermentation of wrong views (ditthasava) 

Fermentation of wrong views is considered to be mainly the wrong belief of a permanent entity called the “ego” or “self” in relation to the five aggregates of clinging (pancha-upadanakkhanda). According to Buddhist teaching what one calls a person, individual or a being is nothing but a psycho-physical complex (nama-rupa) consisting of the five aggregates of clinging. However, through perverted thinking (vipallasa) due to the ignorance of the three marks of all existence (impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha) and not-self (anatta)), unenlightened beings take them to be an “ego” or “self” (sakkayaditthi).

By applying four types of wrong belief of a self to each of the five aggregates of clinging, there are 20 different types of personality belief (sakkaya ditthi). If one considers form or the body (rupa) as an example, the following 4 types of self view are possible;

  1. Assumption of the body to be the self
  2. Assumption of the self as possessing the body
  3. Assumption of the body as within the self
  4. Assumption of the self as within the body

Fermentation of ignorance (avijjasava)

Fermentation of ignorance is the ignorance of the four Noble Truths of suffering (dukkha sacca), the cause of suffering (samudaya sacca), the cessation of suffering (nirodha sacca) and the path leading to the cessation of suffering (magga sacca).

In the Sammaditthi sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya, Venerable Sariputta has described ignorance as follows:

“Not knowing about suffering, not knowing about the origin of suffering, not knowing about the cessation of suffering, not knowing about the way leading to the cessation of suffering — this is called ignorance”

The Pali word “avijja” means “not knowing”. Not knowing or ignorance may also include ignorance of the true reality of all existing mental and physical phenomena namely, impermanence (anicca), suffering or unsatisfactoriness (dukkha) and not-self (anatta).

In describing the Dependent Origination or the Law of Conditionality (paticca samuppada), which explains how suffering arises and how beings continue in the beginning-less cycle of birth and death (samsara), the Lord Buddha has placed ignorance (avijja) at the very forefront of the twelve link chain. This shows that Lord Gautama Buddha realised the nature that ignorance is the key factor influencing the rest of the links of the Dependent Origination.

In the Sammaditthi sutta, Venerable Sariputta has also described the mutual relationship between ignorance (avijja) and the fermentations which are referred to as taints (asava):

“With the arising of the taints there is the arising of ignorance. With the cessation of the taints there is the cessation of ignorance”

“With the arising of ignorance there is the arising of the taints. With the cessation of ignorance there is the cessation of the taints”

Fetters (samyojana)

The Buddha has described ten mental impurities or fetters (dasa samyojana), that act as chains or shackles to keep sentient beings bound to the cycle of birth and death (samsara). These fetters act as obstacles for gaining enlightenment and are gradually eradicated as one attains the four Noble stages of enlightenment and escape the cycle of birth and death.

The ten fetters (dasa samyojana) 

  1. Self identity view (sakkaya ditthi)
  2. Sceptical doubt (vicikicca)
  3. Attachment to mere rites and rituals (silabbata paramasa)
  4. Sensual desire (kama raga)
  5. Ill-will (patigha)
  6. Desire to be born in fine material worlds (rupa raga)
  7. Desire to be born in formless worlds (arupa raga)
  8. Conceit (mana)
  9. Restlessness (uddacca)
  10. Ignorance (avijja)

Self identity view (sakkaya ditthi)

Self identity view, also known as “personality belief” or “delusion of self” is the translation of the Pali word “Sakkaya ditthi”, “sakkaya” meaning the existing body and “ditthi” meaning view. This is the self-identification view which mistakenly identifies with one of the five aggregates of the Psycho-physical complex of mind-matter (nama-rupa) which constitutes what is called an individual or personality as “self”, “soul”, “I” or “me”. In Buddhist teaching, clinging to the aggregates and believing them to constitute a permanent and absolute entity like “I” or “Me” has been described as an illusion which can only result in eventual suffering and continuous existence in the cycle of birth and death. The five aggregates of clinging are conditioned phenomena in a state of continuous flux arising and ceasing from moment to moment with no permanent nature in them. One has no ownership or control over oneself and when one identifies oneself as “I” or “me”, it can only lead to suffering (dukkha) due to one’s very transient nature.

There are three possible ways in which self-identification can take place.

  1. This is mine – due to craving (tanha)
  2. This I am – due to conceit (mana)
  3. This is myself – due to wrong view (ditthi)

Self identity view can be described as the most important of the fetters as it forms the basis for the other fetters and as such needs to be eliminated first in the path to liberation.

The fetter of self identity view (sakkaya ditthi), along with the next two fetters of sceptical doubt and attachment to mere rites and rituals, is eliminated when one attains the stage of Stream Enterer (sotapanna).

Sceptical doubt (vicikicca)

Doubt may arise in relation to the Buddha, Dhamma (Buddha’s teaching), Sangha (community of Buddhist monastics who are liberated or on the path of liberation) and the training that is required to be followed such as the morality (sila), concentration (samadhi) and wisdom (panna).

In the Sabbasava sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s middle length discourses), the Buddha has described 16 doubts that one may have in relation to the past, future and the present as follows:

  1. Was I in the past?
  2. Was I not in the past?
  3. What was I in the past?
  4. How was I in the past?
  5. Having been what, did I become in the past?
  6. Will I be in the future?
  7. Am I not in the future?
  8. What will I be in the future?
  9. How will I be in the future?
  10. Having been what, what will I become in the future?
  11. Am I?
  12. Am I not?
  13. What am I?
  14. How am I?
  15. Where have I come from?
  16. Where will I go? (12)

The fetter of sceptical doubt (vicikicca), along with the two fetters of self identity view and attachment to mere rites and rituals, is eliminated when one attains the first Noble stage of Stream Enterer (sotapanna).

Attachment to mere rites and rituals (silabbata paramasa)

The Pali term Silabbata paramasa, “sila” meaning moral conduct, “bata” or “vata” meaning practice, observance or rites and “paramasa” meaning being attached to, refers to attachment to mere rites and rituals as a means of gaining liberation and enlightenment. During the time of Gautama Buddha there were ascetics who practised extreme ascetic practices such as self mortification and animal lifestyles (dogs, cows, goats, etc.) with the mistaken belief that those practices will lead to enlightenment and final liberation. The Buddha categorically declared that those practices will not lead one to enlightenment and final liberation. According to Buddhist teaching, the fourth Noble Truth; the path leading to the cessation of suffering, is the Noble Eight-fold Path and hence engagement in any other practice believing that it will lead one to final liberation from suffering can be considered as the fetter of silabbata paramasa.

Clinging to vain rites and rituals believing that they will bring one’s liberation (silabbatupadana) has also been described as one of four types of clinging (upadana) in Dependent Origination (paticca samuppada), leading to suffering and repeated existence in the cycle of birth and death (samsara).

  1. Clinging to pleasurable sensual experiences (kamupadana)
  2. Clinging to wrong views (ditthupadana)
  3. Clinging to rules and rituals believing that they will bring one’s liberation (silabbatupadana)
  4. Clinging to the belief of a self (atta-vadupadana)

The fetter of attachment to mere rites and rituals (silabbata paramasa), along with the two fetters of self identity view and sceptical doubt is eliminated when one attains the first Noble stage of Stream Enterer (sotapanna).

Sensual desire (kama raga) 

Sensual desire is the desire for sensual objects received through the six sense organs; sights through the eye, sounds through the ear, smell through the nose, taste through the tongue, tangible objects through the body and mind objects through the mind. It is neither the sense organs nor the sense objects that has the quality of becoming a fetter, but it is the desire or lust (chandaraga) for those sense experiences which becomes a fetter.

In the four Noble Truths, the Buddha described craving as the cause of universal suffering (samudaya sacca) consisting of the following three types of craving:

  1. Craving for sense pleasures (kama tanha)
  2. Craving for becoming or existence (bhava tanha)
  3. Craving for non-becoming or non-existence (vibhava tanha)

Sensual desire (kama raga), along with ill-will is attenuated but not totally eliminated when one attains the second Noble stage of Once Returner (sakadagami). It is totally eliminated when one attains the third Noble stage of Non-Returner (anagami).

Ill-will (patigha)

Ill-will may include several states of negative emotions such as anger, resentment, aversion, animosity, hostility and hatred. If unwise attention (ayoniso manasikara) is frequently given to any object that is repulsive (patigha nimitta), it will provide the nutriment for the arising of ill-will that has not arisen and for the increase and strengthening of ill-will that has already arisen.

The fetter of ill-will (patigha), along with the fetter of sensual desire, is weakened but not totally eliminated, when one attains the second Noble stage of Once Returner (sakadagami). It is totally eliminated, along with sensual desire, when one attains the third Noble stage of Non-Returner (anagami).

Desire to be born in the fine material worlds (rupa raga)

The desire to be born in fine material worlds (rupa brahma loka) means one continues to be bound to the cycle of birth and death (samsara). A meditator is able to attain eight stages of deep mental absorption (jhana); four fine material states (rupavacara jhana) and four immaterial states (arupavacara jhana) through the practice of concentration meditation (samatha bhavana) by focussing one’s attention on one of the forty meditation objects.

If a meditator happens to die while in one of the four fine material states (rupa jhana), re-birth will take place in one of the fine material worlds. The Buddha has described sixteen fine material worlds (rupa brahma loka) among the thirty-one realms of existence where one is likely to be re-born during the beginningless journey through the cycle of birth and death (samsara). Those who are born in fine material worlds which are heavenly realms with an incalculably long life expectancy spend a very blissful life. However, rebirth in any one of the fine material worlds would still be temporary and subject to change. Once the force of the kamma that caused the birth in a particular fine material world is exhausted, one will die and be reborn in yet another plane of existence depending on the remaining kamma. The fetter of desire to be born in fine material worlds (rupa raga) is eliminated only when one attains the final Noble stage of Arahantship.

Desire to be born in the formless worlds (arupa raga)

“Arupa” means without form or body (incorporeal). In formless worlds beings are born without a physical body and with only mind states. The desire to be born in formless worlds is even more subtle than the desire to be born in fine material worlds. The meditator wishes to be born in formless worlds to enjoy the blissful experience with no attachment to any type of physical form. When the fourth fine material state of deep absorption (fourth rupa jhana) is attained, if one wishes to go on to develop the four formless states of deep absorption (arupa jhana), one needs to continue to contemplate on infinite space, infinite consciousness, nothingness and the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception in order to attain the four formless states of deep absorption. Those who have developed one of the four formless meditative states (arupavacara jhana) are destined to be born in one of the four formless worlds if they happen to die while in the same meditative state.

Those born in formless immaterial worlds enjoy a very blissful life with an incalculably long life expectancy even longer than in fine material worlds. However, birth in any one of the four immaterial worlds would still be temporary and subject to change. Once the force of the kamma that caused the rebirth in a formless immaterial world is exhausted, one will die and be reborn in yet another plane of existence depending on the remaining kamma. The fetter of desire to be born in formless immaterial worlds (arupa raga) is eliminated only when one attains the final Noble stage of Arahantship.

Conceit (mana)

The literal meaning of the Pali word “Mana” is measuring, but generally it refers to conceit, self pride or arrogance. In the Buddha’s higher teaching (Abhidhamma), conceit (mana) has been described as one of the fourteen unwholesome mental factors (cetasika) as they are associated with one or more of the three unwholesome roots of greed (lobha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha). According to Buddhist teaching conceit (mana) is one of the three fundamental inner drives; others being greed (tanha) and wrong view (ditthi) that lead to conceptual proliferation (papancha) following sense experiences causing mental defilements.

As a fetter, conceit may refer to the very subtle conceit (asmi mana) in which one carries the feeling of “I am” in relation to the five aggregates of clinging (pancha–upadanaskhanda) which are form (rupa), feeling (vedana), perception (sanna), mental formation (sankhara) and consciousness (vinnana). This subtle ego conceit of “I am”, which is eliminated only when one attains the final Noble stage of Arahantship is different to the self identity view (sakkaya ditthi) in which one identifies with one or more of the five aggregates of clinging (pancha-upadanaskhanda) as “I” or “Me” (13).

Even those who have entered the Noble pathway and attained the first three Noble stages of Stream Enterer, Once Returner and Non-Returner by completely eliminating the self identity view (sakkaya ditthi), still possess the fetter of ego conceit. It would be in the form of subtle conceit (asmi mana) in which one carries the feeling of “I am” in relation to the five aggregates of clinging (pancha–upadanaskhanda) which are form (rupa), feeling (vedana), perception (sanna), mental formation (sankhara) and consciousness (vinnana). This subtle ego conceit of “I am”, is eliminated only when one attains the final Noble stage of Arahatship. 

Restlessness (uddacca)

Restlessness as a fetter refers to mental restlessness, not to physical restlessness. Persistent restlessness, excitement, distraction or agitation can hinder the development of concentration and tranquillity of the mind as well as any effort to see the reality of physical and mental phenomena through insight meditation. As such, it has the potential to obstruct or delay one’s spiritual progress. Restlessness (uddacca) is a mental factor (cetasika) associated with unwholesome mental states due to the three unwholesome roots of greed (lobha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha). Restlessness coupled with worry (uddacca-kukkucca) has also been described in the Buddhist teaching as one of the five mental hindrances (pancha nivarana). Excessive effort as well as excessive desire to achieve a predetermined target through meditation can eventually give rise to restlessness and agitation when those targets are not easily met.

A restless mind has been compared to the water in a bowl whipped by the wind causing ripples to appear so that one is unable to see a clear reflection of oneself in the water. It has also been compared to a flag made unsteady by strong winds to make it flutter. When one receives sense objects through the six sense doors of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and the mind, if those sense objects are experienced as either pleasant or unpleasant it can lead to excitement, distraction and restlessness of the mind. Restlessness may also appear in the mind during meditation, if the meditator misinterprets certain experiences such as the appearance of radiance (obhasa) which is one of the ten imperfections a meditator is likely to experience during insight meditation.

Even a Noble person (ariya) who has attained the third Noble stage of Non-Returner (anagami), who may have attained higher stages of deep absorption of the mind through concentration meditation, still has traces of restlessness (uddacca) which is completely eliminated only when the final Noble stage of Arahantship is attained.

Ignorance (avijja)

Avijja means ignorance or lack of knowledge. As a fetter it refers to ignorance of the four Noble Truths of suffering, cause of suffering, cessation of suffering, and the path leading to the cessation of suffering which is the Noble Eight-fold Path.

In the Avijja sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya (Collection of the Buddha’s connected discourses), the Buddha described ignorance as the leader in attaining unskilful qualities followed by lack of conscience and concern leading to wrong view, wrong intention, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness and wrong concentration (14).

In describing the Buddhist phenomenology of Dependent Origination (paticca samuppada), which explains how sentient beings continue in the cycle of birth and death with all the suffering associated with it, the Buddha placed ignorance as the very first of the twelve conditioning and conditioned factors. Ignorance (avijja) along with desire to be born in fine material worlds (rupa raga), desire to be born in immaterial worlds (arupa raga), conceit (mana) and restlessness (uddacca) is totally eliminated when one attains the final Noble stage of Arahantship.

Five mental hindrances (pancha nivarana)

These are the unwholesome negative mental states or mental defilements that hinder and obstruct the progression of mental development during meditation. According to Buddhist teaching, they arise due to unwise attention (ayoniso manasikara) given to the objects received through the sense organs. In concentration meditation they can hinder and obstruct the development of deep concentration (jhana) and tranquility. They can also hinder the development of lesser degrees of concentration prior to the development of deep absorption states namely; momentary concentration (khanika-samadhi) and neighbourhood or access concentration (upacara-samadhi). In insight meditation they can hinder and obstruct the development of insight and wisdom so that the meditator is unable to enter the noble path of liberation (ariya magga). The Buddha has described these five mental hindrances as the food or nutrients that nourish and fuel the development of ignorance or delusion (avijja).The mental hindrances can be suppressed or removed on a temporary basis during concentration meditation in order to progress with concentration and tranquility but they need to be completely eradicated if one is to progress in insight meditation and attain full liberation through disenchantment and dispassion.

Sensual desire (kamacchanda)

Kamacchanda meaning “delight in sense objects” is the desire or craving for sense pleasures; pleasant visible objects, pleasant sounds, pleasant smells, pleasant tastes and pleasant tangible objects received through the five sense organs of eye, ear, nose, tongue and the body.In the Ahara sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha has stated that there are pleasant and attractive things (subha nimitta) and giving frequent unwise attention (ayoniso manasikara) to them is the nutriment for the arising of sensual desire that has not arisen and for the increase and strengthening of sensual desire that has already arisen (15).In the Samannaphala sutta of the Digha Nikaya (collection of the Buddha’s long discourses), the Buddha has compared a man overwhelmed by sensual desire to a man in debt who has to tolerate verbal and physical harassment by his creditors without retaliating. When the debt is paid back with enough money remaining to maintain a wife, he will feel joy and happiness. Similarly, when a man has eliminated the mental hindrance of sensual desire, he will feel as if he is free from debt and continue with meditation unhindered and attain concentration, tranquility and wisdom (16).

In the Sangarava sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha has compared the mind defiled by the sensual desire to a bowl of water mixed with lac, tumeric, dark green or crimson dye. If a man with normal eye sight looks at the reflection of his own face in that bowl of water he will not know or see his own face as clearly as it should be. Similarly, when the mind is defiled by the sensual desires a man will not know as it really is, his own good, the good of others or the good of both (17).

Ill-will (vyapada)

Ill-will can include several states of negative emotions such as anger, resentment, aversion, animosity, irritation, hostility, grief, fear and hatred towards others. If unwise attention (ayoniso manasikara) is frequently given to any object that is repulsive (patigha nimitta), it will provide the nutriment for the arising of ill-will that has not arisen and for the increase and strengthening of ill-will that has already arisen. The Buddha has compared a mind overwhelmed with the hindrance of ill-will to a bowl of bubbling boiling water that is being heated on a fire. If someone with good eye sight looks at it he will not be able to see the reflection of his own face as it really should be. Similarly, when the mind is defiled by ill-will a man will not see or know a way to get rid of ill-will and will not know as it really is, what is his own good, the good of others or the good of both.In the Samannaphala sutta of the Digha Nikaya, the Buddha has compared a man overwhelmed with ill-will to a man who is seriously ill and in severe pain with no enjoyment in food and no strength in the body. However, following recovery he feels joy and happiness with no pain and is able to enjoy food with strength returning to his body. Similarly, a man who has eliminated the mental hindrance of ill-will, will feel comfortable and strong enough to continue with meditation unhindered by them and to attain concentration, tranquility and wisdom.

Sloth and torpor (thina-middha)

Sloth and torpor is a negative mental state that can arise during meditation in the form of lethargy, laziness, lassitude and sluggishness of the mind which can hinder and obstruct the progress of meditation. It is a compound mental hindrance made up of the two components of sloth (thina) and torpor (middha) as they have the tendency to always exist together. Sloth (thina) can be described as the state of sluggishness or dullness of the mind while torpor (middha) is the state of heaviness and drowsiness in the body which can quite easily lead to sleepiness. Giving unwise attention (ayoniso manasikara) to boredom and other similar states of mind such as listlessness and drowsiness after a meal can provide the nutriment for the arising of sloth and torpor that has not arisen and for the increase and strengthening of sloth and torpor that has already arisen.

In the Samannaphala sutta of the Digha Nikaya, Buddha has compared a man overwhelmed with sloth and torpor to a man who is imprisoned. When he is released from prison safe and sound with no loss of property he would feel joy and happiness. Similarly, a man who has eliminated the mental hindrance of sloth and torpor will feel safe and free to continue with meditation unhindered by them and to attain concentration, tranquility and wisdom. The Buddha has compared the mind that is overwhelmed by sloth and torpor to a bowl of water covered with moss and water plants and if a man with normal eye sight looks at his reflection in the water he will not be able to recognize his own face clearly. Similarly, when the mind is overwhelmed with sloth and torpor, one will not know how to escape from that sate of sloth and torpor and will also not understand as it really is, what is his own god, the good of others or the good of both.

Restlessness and remorse (uddhacca-kukkucca)

Restlessness or agitation (uddhacca) of the mind will hinder and obstruct the development of concentration and tranquility of the mind during both concentration and insight meditation. It has also been described as a distraction or a turbulence of the mind and can range from mild distracting thoughts to severe agitation of the mind and inner turmoil. The application of too much of effort (viriya) into meditation with insufficient concentration can also result in the development of restlessness and agitation which can obstruct the development of concentration and tranquility.Remorse, worry, guilt or anxiety (kukkucca) is the preoccupation with the unwholesome things that one has done or wholesome things that one has not done which can equally hinder the proper development of concentration and tranquility. They are two different negative mantal factors but are considered as one double mental hindrance as they have a tendency to arise together. Giving frequent unwise attention (ayoniso manasikara) to restlessness and remorse in the mind will provide the nutrient for the arising of restlessness and remorse that has not arisen and for the increase and strengthening of restlessness and remorse that has already arisenThe Buddha has compared the mind that is overwhelmed by restlessness and remorse to the water in a bowl that is agitated and stirred by strong wind. If a man with normal eye sight looks at his reflection in the water he will not be able to recognize his own face clearly. Similarly, when the mind is overwhelmed with restlessness and remorse, one will not know how to escape from that state of restlessness and remorse and will also not understand as it really is, what is his own good, the good of others or the good of both.In the Samannaphala sutta of the Digha Nikaya, Buddha has compared a man overwhelmed with restlessness and remorse to a man in slavery, who has to be dependent on others for all his needs and can not do whatever he wants to do or go wherever he wants to go. When he is released from slavery he will feel free and independent and is able to do whatever he wants to do and go wherever he wants to go. Similarly, a man who has eliminated the mental hindrance of restlessness and remorse will feel free to continue with meditation unhindered by them and to attain concentration, tranquility and wisdom.

Sceptical doubt (vicikicca)

Doubt, uncertainty, indecision or perplexity of the mind is the fifth mental hindrance that can hinder and obstruct the progress in both concentration and insight meditation. There are things causing doubt and when unwise attention (ayoniso manasikara) is given to them frequently, it will provide the nourishment for the arising of doubt that has not yet arisen and for the increase and strengthening of doubt which has already arisen. Doubt, which is a mental hindrance needs to be differentiated from a genuine doubt one may have in seeking clarifications through questioning and enquiries about various aspects of the Buddha’s teaching. This type of doubt can be described as an “inquiring doubt” which is a genuine, healthy and a positive kind of doubt with the intention of learning more about the teaching and meditation in order to progress in the path of liberation towards wisdom.

Doubt may arise in relation to the Buddha, Dhamma (Buddha’s teaching), Sangha (Community of Buddhist Monastics who are liberated or on the path of liberation) and the training that is required to be followed such as the morality (sila), concentration (samadhi) and wisdom (panna). Doubt may also arise in relation to the meditation teacher, the meditation techniques that one is practising as well as one’s own ability and suitability to continue with meditation (self doubt) creating a strong feeling of inadequacy and loss of confidence. Unless this type of doubt is recognized and addressed appropriately, preferably with the assistance and support of a meditation teacher or a mentor, the meditator is likely to give up the practice of meditation altogether. The Buddha has compared the mind that is overwhelmed by doubt (vicikicca) to a bowl of water placed in a dark place which is turbid, muddy and stirred up. If a man with normal eye sight looks at his reflection in the water he will not be able to recognize his own face clearly. Similarly, when the mind is overwhelmed with doubt, one will not know how to escape from doubt and will not understand as it really is, what is his own good, the good of others or the good of both.

References

  1. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi 1995, Vatthupama sutta, Translation of The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publication.
  2. Maurice Walshe, 1987, Sangiti sutta, Thus Have I Heard, Translation of The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications, London, England.
  3. Bhikkhu Bodhi 2012, Anusaya sutta, The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, Anguttara Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
  4. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi 1995, Madhupindika sutta, Translation of The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications.
  5. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi 1995, Cula Vedalla sutta, Translation of The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications.
  6. Bhikkhu Bodhi 2012, Nibbedhika sutta, The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, Anguttara Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
  7. Bhikkhu Bodhi 2012, Ogha sutta, The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, Anguttara Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
  8. Bhikkhu Bodhi 2012, Yoga sutta, The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, Anguttara Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
  9. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi 1995, Sammaditthi sutta, Translation of The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications.
  10. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Ahara sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
  11. T. H. Perera 1967, The Four Cankers (asava), Bodhi Leaves No: 35, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
  12. Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi 1995, Sabbasava Sutta, Translation of The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications.
  13. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Khemaka sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
  14. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Avijja sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
  15. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Ahara sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.
  16. Maurice Walshe, 1987, Samannaphala sutta, Thus Have I Heard, Translation of The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications, London, England.
  17. Bhikkhu Bodhi 1999, Sangarava sutta, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications.

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